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PROCEEDINGS 



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1892 




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PROCEEDINGS 



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liati 



HELD IN FRESNO, CAL 



December, 1892 



These Proceedings were adopted by the California Teachers 

Association and ordered printed as a part 

of its Proceedings. 



SAN FRANCISCO: 

W. A. Woodward &. Co., Printers, 12 Sutter Street, 

IS93 



Vc7 



Is 



MEMBERS 

OP THE 

CALIFORNIA COUNCIL OF EDUCATION. 



J. W. ANDERSON, - - Superintendent of Public Instruction 

C. H. KBYES, - - President Thronpe Polytechnic Institute 

WILL S. MONROE, - Palo Alto 

EARL BARNES, - - . Prof. Pedagogy, Stanford University 

M. W. KINCAID, -..,... San Francisco 

J. W. McCLYMONDS, - - Superintendent of Schools, Oakland 

E. T. PIERCE, - - - - PHncipal Normal School, Chico 

CHAS. E. HUTTON, - - - Normal School, Los Angeles 

JAS. A. FOSHAY, - - Superintendent of Schools, Monrovia 

W. M. FRIESNER, - - Superintendent of Schools, Los A figeles 

GEO. KLEEBERGER, - - - - - Normal School, San fose 

J. W. LINSCOTT, - - - Superintendent of Schools, Santa Cruz 

E. G. WELCH, - - . Superintendent of Schools, Shasta Co. 

JAS. G. KENNEDY, - ' San Francisco 

E. B. PURNELL, . - - . . Sacramento High School 

W. C. JONES, - - - - - - University of California 



ORIGIN OF COUNCIL OF EDUCATION. 



At the Riverside meeting of the California Teachers' Asso- 
ciation, the Constitution was amended so as to include or pro- 
vide for an Advisory Body of the Association — called the 
Council of Education, consisting of fifteen members, and the 
State Superintendent of Public Instruction as ex-officio Chair- 
man. 

" Its duties shall be to consider and fepott to the general body 
the desit ability and means of securing ; eform in educational leg- 
islation and p^actice^ 

The member were appointed by Pres. Seaman. (Full 
term five years.) 

ONB YKAR MSMBKRS. 

W. M. Friesner, Los Angeles; Mrs. E. B. Purnell, Sacra- 
mento; Mrs. Mary W. Kincaid, San Francisco. 

TWO years' MKMBBRS. 

Geo. Kleeberger, San Jose; Earl Barnes, Palo Alto; Miss 
E. G. Welch, Shasta. 

THREE years' members. 

W. S. Monroe, Pasadena; J. W. Linscott, Santa Cruz; Wm. 
Carey Jones, Berkeley. 

POUR years' members. 

J. W. McClymonds, Oakland; Jas. A. Foshay, Monrovia; 
E. T. Pierce, Chico. 

FIVE years' members. 

C. E. Hutton, Los Angeles; C. H. Keyes, Pasadena; J. G. 
Kennedy, San Francisco. 

Copy from minutes of State Teacher's Association held at 
Riverside., Dec, 1891. 

J. P. Greely, 
Secretary State Association. 



Minutes of Meetings of Council. 

Oaki^and, Cai,., July 29th, 1892. 

The Council of Education was called to convene at Oak- 
land, July 29tli, 1892. 

On calling the roll, the following members were present: 
State Superintendent J. W. Anderson, J. G. Kennedy, Geo. 
Kleeberger, and J. W. McClymonds. 

There being no quorum present the Council adjourned to 
meet in Oakland on Sept. 10, 1892. 

J. W. McClvYMONDS, 

Secy. Pro Tem. 



Oakland, Cai,., Sept. loth, 1892. 

The Council of Education of the State of California, con- 
vened at Oakland, Sept. 10, 1892. 

Present. — Jas. G. Kennedy, Earl Barnes, W. M. Friesner, 
Geo. Kleeberger, E. T. Pierce, W. S. Monroe, J. W. lyinscott, 
Jas. A. Foshay, and J. W. McClymonds. 

Absent. — J. W. Anderson, C. H. Keyes, W. C. Jones, Mrs. 
Kincaid, Mrs. Purnell, and Miss Welch. 

The Council was organized by the election of W. M. Fries- 
ner as Vice-President, and J. W. McClymonds as Secretary. 

J. G. Kennedy, Earl Barnes, and Jas. A. Foshay were ap- 
pointed a committee to draft By-L,aws and Rules for the gov- 
ernment of the Council. 

The committee submitted the following, which were unani- 
mously adopted. 

BY-LAWS OF CALIFORNIA COUNCIL OF 
EDUCATION. 

SECTION I. 

This body shall be composed of fifteen members, who, to- 
gether with the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 
shall constitute the Council of Education. 

Its duty shall be to consider and report to the general body 



the desirability and means of securing reform in educationar 
legislation and practice. The term of ofl&ce for members of 
this Council shall be five years, provided, however, the first 
list of members shall be appointed by the President of the 
Association immediately upon the adoption of this Section; 
three to serve for one year, three for two years, three for three 
years, three for four years, and three for five years, and an- 
nually thereafter, three members shall be chosen by members 
of the Council to serve for the full term of five years. The 
Council shall also have power to fill all vacancies occurring 
in its membership. 

SEJCTION 2. 

One of the semi-annual meetings shall be held one day be- 
fore the mid-winter meeting of the State Teachers' Associa- 
tion; the other meeting shall be held on the first Saturday in 
September in each year. 

SECTION 3. 

At the winter meeting the Council of Education shall elect 

Ofl&cers consisting of a Vice-President, a Secretary and a 

Treasurer, who shall hold ofl&ce during one year. Their 

duties shall be the same as usually performed by such ofl&cers. 

SECTION 4. 
The Executive Committee of this body shall consist of the 
President, the Vice-President, and the Secretary. 

SECTION 5. 
All vacancies shall be filled at the December meeting. 

Order of Business. 

1. Roll call. 

2 . Reading of minutes . 

3. Reception of communications. 

4. Reports of Special Committees. 

5. Reports of Standing Committees. 

6. Unfinished business. 

7. New business. 

8. Adjournment. 



The following questions were then submitted for the con- 
sideration of the Council: 



High School Question _ - . _ I^insco'DT 

Apparatus and L<ibrary Books . _ . Barnes 

Physical Education ----- Monroe 

Incorporation of State Association - - Foshay 

Manual Training - - - - - KIvEEBKRGER 

Teachers' Institute - - - - Klkeberger 

Examinations and Promotions - - - Monroe 

Licensing of Teachers - - - McClymonds 

Uniform Course of Study - - - . Pierce 
Increase of Time in Normal Schools - Kennedy 



The Council decided to take up the following questions for 
consideration at the December meeting: 

1. " Examinations and Promotions." 

2. " State Text-Books." [Referred by the California 
Teacher's Association to the Council for investigation.] 

3. " High Schools." 

On ' ' Examinations and Promotions ' ' the chair appointed 
the following committee: Monroe, Pierce, Jones, Mrs. Purnell 
and McClymonds. 

On ' ' State Text-Books, ' ' Kennedy, Foshay, Friesner, Mrs. 
Kincaid and Keyes. 

On " High Schools:" Barnes, Kleeberger, Einscott, Miss 
Welch, and Hutton. 

On motion, it was decided that when the Council adjourn 
it be to meet in Fresno the day before the meeting of the State 
Association. 

The resolution of J. G. Jury relating to State Text-Books, 
was referred to the Committee on " State Text Books." 

The Council then adjourned. 

J. W. McClymonds, 

Secretary. 



Hughes' Hotei,, Fresno, Cal., Dec. 27th, 1892. 

The Council of Education of the State of California con- 
vened at the place above written on Tuesday, Dec. 27, 1892. 

Present. — State Superintendent of Schools, J. W. Ander- 
son, W. M. Friesner, Karl Barnes, W. S. Monroe, Jas. A. 
Foshay, C. K. Hutton, C. H. Keyes, J. G. Kennedy, and J. 
W. McClymonds. 

The minutes of meeting of Sept. loth, were read and ap- 
proved. 

J. G. Kennedy for the committee submitted a carefully 
prepared report on the subject of State Text-Books, which 
was unanimously approved by the Council. 

W. S. Monroe, Chairman of the Committee on the subject 
of Promotions, submitted a carefully prepared report giving 
statistics gathered from the State of California. 

J. W. McClymonds submitted a report of statistics gathered 
from cities of the United States. 

B. T. Pierce submitted a report on the same subject. The 
above reports on Examinations and Promotions were approved 
by the Council. 

Earl Barnes and C. E. Hutton each submitted valuable 
reports on the " High School Question." The reports were 
adopted. 

On motion, J. G. Kennedy and J. W. McClymonds were 
appointed a committee to see that action of the Council be 
reported to the State Association, and if possible to have the 
doings of the Council printed in the minutes of the Associa- 
tion. 

The Council then proceeded to fill vacancies in its number 
caused by the expiration of the term of ofl&ce of W. M. Fries- 
ner, Mrs. E. B. Purnell, and Mrs. Mary W. Kincaid. 

W. M. Friesner, of Eos Angeles, F. A. Molyneaux, of 
Pomona, Elmer E. Brown, of the State University of California, 
were elected as members of the Council for a period of five 
years from date of meeting by unanimous vote of the mem- 
bers present. 

The Council proceeded to the election of officers. 



W. M. Friesner was elected Vice-President, and J. W. Mc- 
Clymonds Secretary. 

On motion it was decided that five members shall constitute 
a quorum to transact business. 

On motion, the Secretary was instructed to file all papers 
read before this Council, with the I^ibrarian of the State 
University of California. 

The subjects chosen for discussion at the next meeting of the 
Council were: — 

ist. " The Essentials of a School Building." 

2d. " Licensing of Teachers." 

On the first subject the chair appointed the following com- 
mittee: J. W. McClymonds, Earl Barnes, Wm. S. Monroe, 
Jas. A. Foshay, and J. W. I<inscott. 

On the second subject the chair appointed the following 
committee: Elmer E. Brown, Geo. Kleeberger, C. E. Hutton, 
J. G. Kennedy, and C. H. Keyes. 

There being no further business the Council adjourned. 

J. W. McClvYMONDS, 

Secretary. 



STATE TEXT-BOOKS. 



By Jas. G. Kennedy. 



To the Members of the California Council of Education: 

Gentlemen: — In presenting this report on State Text- 
books, your committee desires to state that considerable time 
has been devoted to collecting statistics for a thorough investi- 
gation of this subject. 

It is to be hoped that this report will receive your careful 
consideration, and that out of the discussion of the text-book 
question there may be developed some plan whereby cheaper 
and better books may be secured for use in the public schools 
of the state. 

For the purpose of simplifying the subject as much as pos- 
sible, the discussion of the topics of this report will take the 
following order: 

1. Methods of securing text-books for use in the public 
schools. 

2. The cost of State Text-books. 

3. The quality of State Text-books. 

4. The method of compiling the State Text-books. 

5. Opinions of Superintendents and Teachers regarding 
State Text-books. 

6. Conclusions drawn from facts presented in this report. 

7. Recommendations based on conclusion of this report. 

Methods oe Securing Text-Books. 

The three principal methods in vogue for furnishing text- 
books to the pupils of the public schools are State or County 
Adoption, State Publication, and State Contract. 

The system of State or County Adoption was formerly in 
vogue in this state and is still in operation with respect to all 
text-books not published at the State Printing Office. 

The law which governs County Adoption at the present time 
generally secures good books, but not always cheap books. 
It is pernicious in the fact that no limit is placed to the price 
at which books may be adopted by the County Boards of Edu- 
cation. 



12 



A new law embodying the best features of the contract sys- 
t em should be adopted by the next L,egislature for the purpose 
of governing the County Boards in the adoption of all books, 
excepting the State Books, now used in the public schools of 
this state. Such a law would effect a great saving to the 
people. 

The system of State Publication has been tried by but one 
state, — California. With its workings you are also well ac- 
quainted. A full discussion of its merits will be presented later 
on in this report. 

The State Contract System is in operation in Minnesota, 
Missouri, Indiana, Ohio, and many other states. It will be 
impossible within the limits of this report to present complete 
statistics from all of the states operating under this system. 
We will, however, be as complete as our space permits. Ohio 
is probably the best representative of the Contract System. 
Profiting by the experience of other states, she has succeeded 
in framing a most excellent text-book law. It provides for a 
State School-book Board consisting of the Governor, the Sec- 
retary of State, and the School Commissioner. 

This Board is empowered to adopt text-books for use in the 
public schools of the state at a price not to exceed 75 per cent 
of the regular wholesale prices. The distribution is under the 
control of the local boards of education, 10 per cent of the con- 
tract price being allowed for expense. 

The result of this law has been very beneficial. Under its 
provisions school text-books are now furnished at a reduction 
of more than 40 per cent from the retail prices formerly prevail- 
ing in the State of Ohio. (See Exhibit A). 



Cost of Statk Text-Books. 

The system of State Publication in this state has been in op- 
eration about seven years, a sufiicient length of time for all 
parties to judge fully of its merits. 

In selecting text-books for the schools, two things are to be 
considered, — price and quality, quality being by far the most 
important factor. 

Are the vState Text-books cheap ? Are they up to the stand- 



13 

ard in quality ? These are the questions presented for con- 
sideration. They must be answered, and answered fairly. 
The most satisfactory answer to these questions is to be foun d 
in a concise historical review of the State Text-book scheme. 
We shall accordingly present you with an impartial stateme nt 
of what, in our judgment, are the salient points of the subject, 
together with certain suggestions, comparisons, conclusions and 
recommendations. 

The Republican State Convention during its session in 1882, 
had submitted to it for incorporation in its platform, the follow- 
ing resolution, which was adopted: 

"We recommend to the lyCgislature the establishment of 
some system by which the State shall print and provide the 
reading and other text-books used in the public schools, sup- 
plying the same to the pupils at actual cost. ' ' 

The intent of this resolution was so clearly unconstitutional 
that it did not, at the time, attract very much attention . 

In December of 1882, the Convention of County School 
Superintendents reported most emphatically against the plan. 

The Safi Francisco Daily Examiner and the Chronicle both 
opposed State Publication, the Exajniner 2iS a " costly folly," 
and the Chronicle as " a scheme with a job on its face." 

In the face of all opposition, the lyCgislature of 1882-3, early 
in its session, basing its action upon estimates presented by the 
State Printer, passed an act amending the Constitution so as 
to provide for the publication by the state of a series of public 
school text-books. 

Fearing the effect upon the public schools, if the State Pub- 
lication scheme became a part of the organic law of this state, 
the subject was fully discussed at the session of the California 
Teachers' Association, held in San Francisco, December, 1883. 

An exhaustive report prepared by a special committee was 
submitted and unanimously adopted. The report concluded 
with the declaration that " the publication of school text-books 
by this state is inexpedient and impracticable and will, if at- 
tempted, result in great pecuniary loss to the state, and inex- 
pensive and unsatisfactory books for our schools. ' ' 



H 



The estimates of the cost of publication, as given by the State 
Printer, were shown to be erroneous and misleading. 

Despite the warnings from the press, from superintendents, 
and from teachers, the Constitutional Amendment at the ensu- 
ing election, under a misapprehension of the people, was adopted, 
thus formally establishing the scheme for publishing State 
School Text-books. 

The opponents of the State Text-book scheme claimed that 
it would cost at least $250,000 to inaugurate the system, and 
that after the books were published they would work a great 
injury to our schools because of their inferior quality. For 
this they were accused of working in the interest of private 
publishing firms. The State Printer, in his original estimate, 
helped to convince the people of the truth of this accusation. 
He claimed, exclusive of the cost of distribution, that the State 
could publish the First Reader at a cost of 9;^ cents, the Sec- 
ond Reader at a cost of 18 cents, the Third Reader at a cost of 
24^ cents, and the Speller at a cost of 8}i cents. In the same 
report the State Printer placed the cost of the printing plant, 
bindery, etc., at the low estimate of $32,485.87. After this low 
estimate had served the purpose for which it was intended, the 
State Printer filed a second report, placing the cost of the print- 
ing plant, bindery, etc., at $115,000.00. Finding that his esti- 
mate was still too low, the State Printer filed a third report, 
and placed the cost of the printing plant, bindery, etc., at 
$250,000.00, thus virtually endorsing the position taken by the 
Teachers' Convention of December, 1883. But experience has 
proven that this estimate was entirely too low, as the appro- 
priations up to April 30th, 1 89 1, were $480,000.00. (See Ex- 
hibit D.) ■ 

Unfortunately, the State Printer's mistakes did not end here. 
When the State Text-books were ready for distribution it was 
discovered that the original estimate on the cost of each book 
was also too low. The following tabulated statement will 
clearly illustrate the discrepancy between the original estimated 
cost of the State Text-books and the price for which they were 
at first sqld: 



15 



NAME OF BOOK. 


ESTIMATED 
COST. 


EIRST SEI/WNG 
PRICE. 


State First Reader .... 
State Second Reader .... 
State Third Reader .... 
State Speller 


9X cts. 
i8 

24X 

sy 


15 cts. 

30 
40 
20 



Although the State Books were sold greatly in advance of 
the estimated cost, there was a large biennial deficiency in the 
appropriation for the State Printing Office. This led Mr. J. D. 
Young, successor to Mr. Ayers, to advise the State Board of 
Education in January, 1888, that according to his estimates 
the State Text-books were being sold at a price below the cost 
of manufacture. The schedule of prices was accordingly re- 
vised, and since that time the State First Reader has been sold 
at 20 cents, the State Second Reader at 40 cents, the State 
Third Reader at 65 cents, and the State Speller at 30 cents. 
The following tabulated statement will show the discrepancy 
between the original estimated cost and the present selling price 
of the State Books: 



NAME OF BOOK. 


ESTIMATE 
OF COST. 


PRESENT SEL- 
IvING PRICE. 


State First Reader .... 
State Second Reader .... 
State Third Reader .... 
State Speller 


9X Cts. 

18 

MX 

sys 


20 cts. 

40 
65 
30 



Is it possible that an intelligent State Printer could have un- 
intentionally made such mistakes ? 

It is boldly charged that the selling price of the State Books 
is still far below the actual cost of manufacture. The friends 
of State Publication deny this charge, while the opponents of 
the scheme as stoutlj'- maintain it, and cite the regular biennial 
deficiency in the State Printing Office as proof of their state- 
ment. 

The following tabulated statement will clearly show the effect 
of State Publication on the expenditures of the State Printing 
Office : 



i6 



:eXPENDlTTXRBS OF THE STATE) 
PRINTING OFFICE FOR 5 YEARS IM- 
MEDIATEI.Y PRECEDING STATE 
PUBWCATION. 



EXPENDITURES OF THE STATE 
PRINTING OFFICE FOR 5 YEARS IM- 
MEDIATELY FOI.LOWING STATE 
PUBLICATION. 



Expend. 32d Fiscal Yr. 
" 33d 
" 34th 
" 35th 
" 36th 


1114,738 32 
55,859 51 
89,763 20 
63,767 32 
77,488 93 


Expend. 37th Fiscal Yr. 
" 38th 
" 39th 
' ' 40th ' ' 
" 41st " 

Total, . $ 


1181,982 69 
168,380 32 
210,286 49 
257,750 79 
245,546 38 


Total, 


1401,617 28 


[,063,896 67 



These figures speak for themselves, and strongly support the 
charge that the publication of State Text-books is largely re- 
sponsible for the regular biennial deficiency in the State Print- 
ing Ofiice. The claim of the friends of State Publication that 
this deficiency is not due to the cost of the text-book depart- 
ment of the State Printing Ofl&ce, is hardly supported by the 
facts. 

The cost of state printing during the fiscal year just pre- 
ceding the inauguration of State Publication, was 177,488.93, 
The cost of state printing, exclusive of text-books, during the 
fiscal year of 189 1-2, was $147,518.42. This shows that the 
State Printing Ofiice cost $70,029.49 more in the 43rd fiscal 
year than it did in the 36th fiscal year. That this increase in 
the expenditures of the State Printing Ofiice was entirely un- 
necessary, unless it was due to the publication of State Text- 
books, may be seen at a glance by comparing the cost of state 
printing in California with the cost of state printing in other 
states. 

The following tabulated statement shows the population and 
the comparative cost of state printing in six states of the union 
for the fiscal year 189 1-2: 



NAME OF STATE. 


POPULATION. 


COST OF PRINTING. 


California, .... 
Wisconsin, . . • . 
Indiana, .... 

Ohio, 

Michigan, .... 
Illinois, 


1,208,130 
1,686,880 
2,192,404 
3,072,316 
2,093,891 
3,826,351 


|i47,5i8 42 
24,892 II 
40,000 00 

55,744 43 
45,881 00 
38,008 51 






^7 

In the great State of Ohio with three times the population 
and three times the printing, it costs but a little over one-third 
as much to conduct the printing department of the state gov- 
ernment as it does in the State of California. 

If these facts show anything, they show, unless there is gross 
extravagance in conducting the State Printing Ofiice, that the 
publication of State Text-books is responsible for the regular 
biennial deficiency in the State Printing Ofl&ce. 

lyCt us now compare the cost of the California series of school 
books with the cost of the series of text-books used in Ohio: 



PRICE OE TEXT BOOKS IN CALI- 
FORNIA — STATE PUBIvICATlON. 



PRICE OF TEXT-BOOKS IN OHIO 
— STATE CONTRACT. 



State First Reader, . . 


1 20 


Harpers' First Reader, . 


$ 18 


" Second Reader, . . 


40 


Harpers' Second Reader, 


27 


" Third Reader, . . 


65 


Harpers' Fourth Reader, 


45 


" Speller, . . . 


30 


Patterson's Common School 








Speller 


14 


" Number lyessons, 


25 


White's. First Book in Arith. 


23 


" Advanced Arithmetic, 


50 


White's Complete Arith. 


49 


" Language Lessons, . 


30 


Reed & Kellogg's Graded 








Lessons in English, 


27 


" English Grammar, . 


50 


Reed & Kellogg's Higher 








Lessons in English, 


45 


" History of U. S., . . 


80 


Barnes' Brief Hist, of U. S. 


75 


" El. Geography, . . 


60 


Harpers' Int. Geography, 


36 


" Physiology, . . . 


60 


Steele's Hyg. and Physiol- 








ogy, Abridged, 


38 


" Civil Government, . 


55 


Peterman's Civil Govrnmnt. 
Total, . 


45 


Total, . 


1 5 65 


1 4 42 



These figures show that a complete set of California State 
Books costs $1.23 more than a corresponding set in Ohio. 
What is true of the prices of text-books in the State of Ohio, is 
also true of the prices of school books in other states working 
under the State Contract System. (See Exhibit A.) 

The following tables will show the retail price of text-books 
in Missouri and Indiana, as compared with the prices of the 
California Series: 



i8 
TABLE No. I. 



RETAII, PRICK OP TEXT-BOOKS IN 


RETAII, PRICE OE TEXT-BOOKS IN 


CAI^IEORNIA — STATE PUBWCATION. 


MISSOURI — STATE CONTRACT 




State First Reader, . . . 


$ 


20 


Franklin First Reader, . 


$ 14 


" Second Reader, . . 




40 


Franklin Second Reader, 


20 


" Third Reader, . . 




65 


Franklin Fourth Reader, 


40 


" Speller, . . . 




30 


Eclectic Speller, . . . 


16 


" Number Lessons, 




25 


Ray's Primary Arithmetic, 


14 


" Advanced Arithmetic, 




50 


Ray's Practical Arithmetic, 


44 


" Language Lessons, . 




30 


Hyde's Practical Lessons in 
English, No. i, . . . 


22 


" English Grammar, . 




50 


Hyde's Practical Lessons in 
English, No. 2, . . . 


39 


" History of U. S. 




80 


Barnes' Brief History U. S., 


88 


" EL Geography, . . 




60 


Butler's El. Geography, . 
Brand's Lessons on Human 


49 


" Physiology, . . 




60 


Body 

Total, . 


40 


Total, . 


$ 


5 10 


I386 



These figures show that the children of California have to 
pay $1.24 more for a complete series of State Books than the 
children of Missouri have to pay for the Missouri Series. (See 
Exhibit B.) 

TABLE No. 2. 



RETAII, PRICE OE TEXT-BOOKS IN 


RETAII, PRICE OF TEXT-BOOKS IN 


CAWEORNIA — STATE PUBI^ICATION. 


INDIANA-— STATE CONTRACT 




State First Reader, . 


$ 


20 


Standard Eirst Reader, . 


$ 10 




Second Reader, 




40 


Standard Second Reader, 


15 




Third Reader, . 




65 


Standard Fourth Reader, 


30 




Speller, . 




30 


Collett's Speller, 


10 




English Grammar, . 




50 


Collett's Comp. Eng. Gram. 


40 




Number Lessons, 




25 


Ray's Primary Arithmetic, 


15 




Advanced Arithmetic, 




50 


Ray's Practical Arithmetic, 


45 




History of the U. S., 




80 


Montgomery's Hist, of U. S. 


65 


" El. Geography, 




60 


Barnes' El. Geography, . 
Brand's Lessons on Human 


30 


" Physiology, 




60 


Body .... 
Total, . 


30 


Total, . 


$ 


4 80 


$ 2 90 



This table shows that California pays $1.90 more for a set of 
the State Books than Indiana does for a corresponding series of 
text-books. (See Exhibit of Books.) 

In making these comparisons we have compared the First, 
Second and Third Readers of the State Series with the First, 



19 



Second and Fourth Readers of the other series. It would be 
evidently unjust to compare a series of five finely bound, per- 
fectly graded and well adapted readers with the three books of 
the State Series. However, that there may be no cause of com- 
plaint, we give below a tabulated comparison of the cost of the 
California and Indiana Readers: 



CAI,lFORNIA READERS. 


INDIANA READERS. 


State First Reader, . . . 
State Second Reader, . . 
State Third Reader, . . 


1 


20 
40 
65 


Standard First Reader, 
Standard Second Reader, 
Standard Third Reader, . 
Standard Fourth Reader, 
Standard Fifth Reader, . 

Total, . 


$ 


ID 

15 

40 


Total, . 


1 


I 25 


$ 


I 20 



This shows that California pays more for her three inferior 
readers than Indiana does for her five books of excellent quality. 

Since the inauguration of the State Publication scheme, the 
children of the State of California have paid $105,200.17 more 
for the state text-books than the children of Ohio have paid for 
the same number of corresponding books. 

The following table will more clearly illustrate the difference 
in the cost of text-books in California and in Ohio: 







!z! 


n 


n 


^ t-i 




0^ p 


p 


B 1-^ P CO 


t! 




^ S" 


P r+ 


OfQ B "-^ 






^5o 


• c 


g'B^s- 


• 


NAMES OE BOOKS. 


§^" 


■ 


° ffi 5 


■ 






• p^ 


s-|i|- 


• P, 







• o" 


• C! C" 


■ o" 




• P U) 


. H 


1 >-t >-t^ 


. n 


State First Reader, . 


249.750 


$ 49.950 00 


$ 44,955 00 


$ 4,995 00 




' Second Reader, 


168,540 


67,416 00 


45-505 80 


21,910 20 




' Third Reader, . 


100,437 


65,284 05 


45,196 65 


20,087 40 




' Speller, . . 


156,715 


47,014 50 


21,940 10 


25,074 40 




' Number Lessons 


94,649 


23,662 25 


21,769 27 


1,892 98 




' Adv. Arithmetic 


140,975 


70,487 50 


69,077 75 


1,409 75 




' Language Less. 


80,676 


24,202 80 


21,782 52 


2,420 28 




' English Gram. 


79.444 


39,722 00 


35,749 80 


3.972 20 




' History of U. S. 


54.617 


43,693 60 


40,962 75 


2,730 85 




' Physiology, 


15,552 


9.331 20 


5,909 76 


3.421 44 




' El. Geography, 


71,243 


42,745 80 


25,647 48 


17,098 32 


" Civil Governmt. 


1,249 


749 40 


562 05 


187 35 




Totals, . 


1,212,847 


1 484,359 10 


$ 379.158 93 


$ 105,200 17 



20 



These figures show that the State of California, exclusive of 
plant, bindery, interest, etc., could have gone into the open 
market and purchased the same number of corresponding books 
and furnished them to the children of the state for $105,200.17 
less than it cost the pupils of the public schools to purchase the 
present State Series. 

If we add $105,200.17, the money lost on the difference in 
price of text-books, $480,000.00, the money expended for plant, 
bindery, etc., and $194,790.40, the interest on the money in- 
vested, we will have the vast sum of $779,790.57 as the total 
cost of State Publication up to the present time. 

From the foregoing statistics, yonr committee concludes that, 
up to the present time. State Publication has not furnished as 
cheap text-books as the advocates of the measure claimed. 

Quality of State Tkx-Books. 

We come now to the consideration of the second inquiry of 
this report. Are the State Text-books up to the standard in 
quality ? 

In order that you may clearly comprehend the standard of 
criticism adopted by your committee, let us briefly consider the 
qualities of a good text-book. 

• First. — The text-book should be well printed, durably bound, 
and clearly illustrated. 

Second. — The information furnished by the text-book should 
be absolutel}^ correct. 

Third. — The method followed in presenting the subject- 
matter of the text-book should be in accordance with the best 
educational thought. 

Fourth. — The text-book should be so written as to develop 
in the pupil the habit of self-reliance. 

Fifth. — The books of different sets should be so closely 
graded that the pupil, with the same ease, may be enabled to 
pass from one hook, to another, as he does from one lesson to 
another. 

Sixth. — The text-book, in style and matter, should be ad- 
apted to the mental status of the pupil. 

Having submitted to j^ou our standard of criticism that you 



21 



may judge of its justness, we will next proceed to the critical 
examination of the books of the State Series. 

It may be truthfully said of the State Readers, that they are 
notably poor in binding, illustration grading and adaptability. 
When the Readers were first published they fell to pieces after 
being used a few weeks. Since then the binding has been 
greatly improved. There is, however, plenty of room for fur- 
ther improvement in this respect as the following statement will 
show. In the Franklin Grammar School of San Francisco, 
there are in use 689 Readers, 423 or 61 per cent of these are 
falling to pieces through poor binding. 

The binding of the State Speller is about the same as the 
binding of the Readers. Of 589 Spellers in use in the Franklin 
Grammar School, 315 or 51 per cent are falling to pieces. This 
is not the result of being in use for too long a time, but because 
of inferior binding. Many of the Spellers came to pieces dur- 
ing the first year's service. 

Of the 290 Elementary Geographies in use in the same school, 
175 or 60 per cent are falling to pieces owing to poor binding. 

The fact is, the binding of the State Books is inferior in qual- 
ity and should be remedied by those having State Publication 
in charge. 

Although the mechanical construction of the State Readers 
is poor, the grading is worse. After a child has read the State 
First Reader and the supplementary reading of the same grade, 
it is still unable, with any degree of intelligence, to proceed 
with the work of the State Second Reader. There is a break 
of at least a year between the First and the Second Readers of 
the State Series, that must be bridged over with advanced sup- 
plementary reading before the child can enter successfully upon 
the work of the Second Reader. 

The step between the Second and the Third Readers of the 
State Series is greater than the step between the First and Sec- 
ond Readers of the same series. This break has also to be 
bridged by advanced supplementary reading before the pupil 
can proceed with the higher work. 

Experience has proven that it is impossible to grade a series 
of three readers, so as to cover a period of nine years of school 
life. 



22 

In addition to the defects of construction and grading, the 
State Readers are not adapted to the mental status of the pupils 
who are to use them. Many of the selections of the Second 
Reader are entirely too difficult for children from lo to 12 years 
inclusive. The same is true of the selections in the Third 
Reader for children from 13 to 15 years inclusive. 

The selections are disconnected and beyond the grade of 
culture of the child for whom they are intended, and therefore, 
cannot be read or studied with any degree of intelligence by 
most of the pupils in the primary and grammar schools. 

The State Speller is faulty, both in method and adaptability. 
It is largely based on the column method of spelling, and con- 
tains thousands of words that are entirely beyond the compre- 
hension of the average pupil of our grammar schools. If these 
words are to be learned, it must be done by sheer force of mem- 
ory, only to be forgotten again. This kind of work is a waste 
of mental energy and injurious to pupils. 

The State Language Lessons and the State English Gram- 
mar are supposed to be a series of well-graded and clearly uni- 
fied language books, but they are not. They were evidently 
written by different persons and upon different plans, as there 
is no similarity between the two books. 

While 5^our committee does not endorse the method of teach- 
ing language as presented in the State Language Lessons, yet 
the plan of the book, from the standpoint of the compiler, is 
well-developed and is acceptable to many teachers. 

The State English Grammar, however, is a sadly muddled 
text-book, without any intelligible plan, expressing in chaotic 
style the peculiar and conflicting ideas of its many compilers. 
It is obscure and ambiguous, and entirely too complicated for 
seventh and eighth grammar grade pupils. The subject-matter 
has been taken from many different sources and jumbled to- 
gether without any well defined system. For a simple work 
on the essentials of the English Language it is a flat failure. 
As an authority on English construction, it is absolutely 
worthless. 

The Number Lessons and the Advanced Arithmetic of the 
State Series should form a closely related series of books, 



■k 



23 



written upon the same plan. In this case, however, the books 
are written on two entirely di£ferent plans. There is no more 
connection between them than if they belonged to two different 
sets of Arithmetics. Owing to the employment of too many 
compilers, unity of plan is entirely wanting. 

The advanced State Arithmetic is faulty in method and im- 
practicable in exercises. In the State Arithmetic there is little, 
if any, explanation of principles, and nearly all the practice 
work is purely abstract. Such a book destroys the self reliance 
of the pupil, as he is unable to proceed with his work with- 
out the assistance of the teacher. Such a book prevents all 
self- help fulness on the part of the pupil. 

Of this remarkable State Series, the History of the United 
States is probably the most remarkable production. Obscure 
in statement, heavy in style, and wanting in adaptability, it is 
totally unfit for the purposes for which it was intended. There 
is not a grammar school pupil in the State of California who 
can read it, much less understand its meaning. 

In illustration the State History is decidedly inferior. If the 
old Puritans or the proud Cavaliers could see themselves as 
presented in this book they would rise from their graves and 
enter an indignant protest. 

The sooner the State History is replaced by one clear in 
statement, simple in style, and well adapted to the mental ca- 
pacity of children attending the grammar schools, the better it 
will be for the boys and girls of the state. 

The State Elementary Geography has some merit. The 
plan, with some modifications, would be a good one. The text 
of this book, however, is altogether beyond the understanding 
of primary pupils. In style and thought it is just suited to the 
higher grammar grades. 

If the physical, the commercial, and the political features of 
the Elementary Geography had been a little more complete, it 
would have answered admirably for an advanced book, pro- 
vided the indistinct and crowded maps were replaced by better 
ones. 

The State Physiology was evidently not prepared by a spec- 
ialist in this branch. It is faulty in method, misleading in 



24 



statement, and poor in literary style. At best, the book is but 
a hasty and imperfect compilation, and lacks the unity and 
force of a carefully prepared original treatise. It is wanting in 
that clear, direct and systematic organization of its matter, 
which is the mark and value of a strictly scientific work. It 
abounds in misleading, conflicting and incorrect statements of 
facts, while its style of composition is crude, and often gram- 
matically incorrect. 

The State Civil Government is one of the best books of the 
series; however, it is not adapted to grammar schools where 
the law contemplates its use. In style and subject-matter it is 
suited for high schools. 

Since writing the above criticism, the friends of State Publi- 
cation have admitted the inferiority of the State Books by 
urging their immediate revision. 

From the facts, as set forth in the above critical review, we 
conclude that the State Series of School Text-books is not up to 
the standard in binding, grading, illustration and adaptability. 

Accompanying this report are sample sets of Ohio, Missouri 
and Indiana text-books, which the members of this body are 
requested to examine and compare with the California series as 
to price, binding, paper, illustration, grading and adaptability. 

Opinions of Supbrintendknts and Tkachers. 

While the subject of State Text-books is of great importance 
to the tax-payer, it is of paramount importance to the teacher, 
because, next to the teacher, the text-book is the most import- 
ant factor in the education of the child. The teacher, from the 
nature of his calling, he is peculiarly fitted to pass judgment on 
the merits of the text-books used by his pupils. It is the 
teacher's duty at all times to fearlessly and publicly express 
his honest conviction to the end that his patrons and pupils 
may be enabled to secure the cheapest and the best text-book 
published. 

Your committee, believing that the opinions of superintend- 
ents and teachers would be the best evidence of the merits or 
demerits of the State Text-books, prepared a circular to be sent 
direct to the superintendents and teachers of this state, but 



25 

owing to tlie expense, the plan was abandoned, and a circular 
was sent to the County Superintendents asking what action, in 
reference to State Text-books, had been taken by the teachers 
of their respective counties. From this circular we have re- 
ceived 38 replies classified as follows: 



For State Text-books, 
Against State Text-books, . 
No Action on State Text-books , 



2 

15 
21 



While these statistics are not complete it is evident that the 
great majority of teachers and superintendents consider the 
State Books greatly below a proper standard in quality. (See 
Exhibit C.) 

Mkthod of Preparing Statk Books. 

What, it may be pertinently asked, has been the method 
pursued in the preparation of the State Books ? 

The members of the State Board of Education, in office dur- 
ing the work of compilation, appointed themselves to super- 
vise this work, and inexperienced persons to do the work. 
Th'^y also appointed an editor of these books. 

With inexperienced supervisors, whose time was otherwise 
fully employed, and with inexperienced compilers, the result 
has been what might have expected — the poorest set of books 
ever published. 

Had the members of the State Board of Education used good 
business judgment, they would have advertised for the manu- 
script of each book, or they would have appointed a board of 
experienced editors, and then left the matter entirely in their 
hands. If either of these plans had been pursued, the result 
would have been different. We would have had better text- 
books for our schools. 

From the facts and figures presented in this report, your 
committee presents the following conclusions: — 

1, State publication, up to the present time, has not fur- 
nished as cheap text-books as the friends of the plan expected , 

2. State publication, under the policy pursued by the State 
Board of Education, has failed to produce text-books up to a 



i 



26 



proper standard in binding, illustration, grading, and adapta- 
bility. 

3. The method followed in the compilation of the State 
Books is impracticable, and not calculated to produce the best 
results. 

In view of these conclusions, your committee recommends 
that the next legislature take some action towards reducing 
the price and improving the quality of the text-books used in 
the public schools of the State. 

JAS. G. KENNEDY, 
JAS. A. FOSHAY, 
W. M. FRIESNER, 
C. H. KEYES. 



EXAMINATIONS AND PROMOTIONS IN 
CALIFORNIA. 



By W11.L S. Monroe, Palo Alto, Cal. 



The subject of examinations and promotions was so gener- 
ally discussed at the meeting of the California Teachers' 
Association held at Riverside, Dec, 1891, that it commended 
itself to the Council of Education; and at the meeting held at 
Oakland in September, the writer was appointed Chairman of 
the committee to report on the question at the December 
meeting. Of those appointed to act with him in the prepara- 
tion of this report, Mr. Kdw. T. Pierce was designated to 
secure the opinions of normal school principals in the United 
States, and Mr. J. W. McClymonds to address letters to the 
leading City Superintendents, and secure the practices and 
opinions thereof. 

The special bearing of the question on California was re- 
served for the writer. Mr. Pierqe and Mr. McClymonds will 
each make individual reports to the Council, and what fol- 
lows is my study of local conditions obtained by means of ex- 
tensive correspondence with Superintendents and teachers. 

The report is the summarization of these letters, including 
as it does every section of the State, as well as all the varied 
conditions under which educational work is carried on. 



Replies to inquiries were received as follows: 
County Superintendents . . . 
Members of County Boards of Education 
City Superintendents of Schools - 
Principals of Schools . . _ _ 
Teachers in High Schools - - - 
Teachers of Grammar Schools 
Teachers of Primary Schools 
Teachers of mixed Schools 
In all 



30 

9 

17 

19 

35 

123 

149 

72 

454 



28 



The first inquiry relates to the methods practiced, in the 
State in determining fitness for promotion. 

The second seeks to ascertain the opinions of Superintend- 
ents and teachers as to the proper basis of promotion, and 
thus determine the approximation of theories and practices. 

The third inquiry has to do with person or persons who pass 
judgment upon the fitness of pupils for promotion. 

The fourth inquiry touches the intervals of promotion, and 
the fifth gives returns of cities where examinations have been 
employed as a basis of promotion, together with the opinions 
of Superintendent and teachers . 

How Promotions are Madk. 
Desiring to know the practices in the different counties of 
the State, I sent letters of inquiry to all the County Superin- 
tendents in which I asked the following questions: 

1. How is the fitness of pupils for promotion determined 
in your county ? By written examinations, teachers' esti- 
mate, or class-standing — in 

a. Primary (ist, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th year) grades. 

b. Grammar (5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th year) grades. 

c. High School (9th, loth, nth, and 12th year) grades. 

2. If written examinations are used to determine fitness for 
promotions : 

a. How often do they occur ? 

b. By whom are the questions prepared ? 

c. By whom are the pupils' papers graded ? 

d. Does County Board of Education revise the papers ? 

Thirty County Superintendents replied. Twenty-four re- 
ported that written examinations were held in their respective 
counties as the basis for promotion; four reported that promo- 
tions were made on teachers' estimates, and two on class- 
standings. 

In eighteen counties the questions are prepared by the 
County Board of Education; in four counties they are prepared 
by the teachers. In thirteen counties the papers are graded 
by the County Board of Education; in nine counties they are 
graded by the teachers, but in six of these counties papers are 



29 



revised by the County Board of Education. In three counties 
only the papers are not revised after they have been graded 
by the teachers. 

The rules and regulations governing these written examina- 
tions for promotion differ little in the various counties. I give 
those prescribed in two counties of the State. The first 

reads: 

RuivEs: 

Governing annual examinations of the pupils of the public schools of 
county adopted by the Board of Education. 

1. The teacher of each school or each department in graded schools, 
is hereby constituted examiner of said school or department and will be 
held responsible for the faithful discharge of said duty. 

2. The questions will be forwarded to each teacher, or principal of 
graded school, securely sealed, and must not be opened until the time 
for the examination to begin, and then in presence of the class. 

3. Teachers must give pupils a fair and impartial examination, and 
must grade the papers, marking the standing of each question on the 
left margin and total credits in upper left hand corner. 

4. Each teacher will be allowed two weeks in which to grade papers 
and forward them to County Superintendent. 

5. Each pupil is expected to answer the questions without explana- 
tion from the teacher, or any assistance whatever; and the papers of any 
pupil who does not comply with the above requirements must be rejected 
by the teacher. 

6. All pupils must begin a given subject at the same time, and no 
pupil must be excused from the room until the questions written on the 
board have been answered, and the papers handed in. 

7. Pupils of the same grade must occupy separate seats or desks dur- 
ing examinations. 

8. All papers must be legibly written in ink. Map drawing may be 
executed with lead pencil. 

9. Pupils must answer in complete sentences as far as possible. 

10. Use legal cap paper if possible. 

11. Pupils should leave a margin on the left side of paper. 

12. Report the grade to which every pupil belongs. Do not rank a 
pupil who takes only a part of the examination. 

13. Pupils who are in two or more grades, should be given the ques- 
tions of the lowest grade only. 

14. Put the average grade the pupil receives in this examination in 
the " Average " column. 

15. Return the printed questions with the papers to the Superintend- 
ent of Schools. 

16. When the teacher has completed the record, he will fill out and 
sign the following certificate. 



30 

I, teacher of — District, County, Cal., do 

hereby certify that I have not permitted anyone to obtain a knowledge 
of the questions before they were submitted to the classes; that I have 
conducted the examination in all respects in conformity with the above 
rules; that I have given no assistance to pupils, directly or indirectly, in 
answering the questions, nor permitted anyone else to do so; that to the 
best of my ability I have graded all papers impartially and correctly, and 
that the record herewith returned is a true statement of the results of the 
examination. 

Signed , 

Teacher District. 

NoXKS: 

(i.) Do not let the pupils fold their papers. 

(2.) In mental arithmetic, the pupil should let his pen lie on the desk 
while the teacher reads the question. After ample time has been given 
the pupils to solve the problem, let the teacher say, "Write." Then let 
the pupils write the answer ' ' only, ' ' and number it to correspond with 
the number of the question . 

(3.) Conduct the examination throughout as much like a teachers' 
examination as practicable. 

The second reads : 
RuivES i^OR Examination of Pupii^ in — County Schooi^s: 

1. An annual examination of pupils for graduation, and for promo- 
tion in the several grade divisions, shall be held in all the schools of 

county, beginning on the first Monday of June and continuing 

one week. 

2. Such examinations shall be uniform, and the questions for classes 
in the Grammar Grades and for the highest division of the Primary 
Grade, shall be prepared by this Board. Examination questions for the 
lower divisions of Primary Grade shall be prepared by teachers, but ex- 
amination in lower classes shall be chiefly oral. 

3. Sets of the printed questions, together with a schedule of the stand- 
ards required in the different studies, shall be sent to each teacher in the 
county having charge of a school. Sealed envelopes containing the pre- 
scribed questions shall be opened by teachers, in the presence of their 
schools, for the first time upon the day the examination begins. 

4. It is hereby made the duties of teachers to conduct such examina- 
tions, to mark the papers of pupils, and to enter upon the schedule the 
standing of each pupil in each study he has pursued during the school 
term. 

5. The order of studies shall be as arranged on the schedule, and 
the general directions for conducting the examinations, sent to teachers, 
must be strictly observed. 

6. Examinations shall be conducted partly 'in writing and in part 



31 



orally. A record shall be made of both oral and written work, which 
record, with the written papers of pupils, shall be reviewed by the Board 
while in session at the County Seat. 

7. Pupils not present at the beginning of an examination shall not be 
afterwards admitted. 

8. All members of a class must begin a subject in the written exam- 
ination at the same time, and no recess shall be allowed until that sub- 
ject is finished. 

9. The marked papers of such pupils as attain 75 per cent in the ex- 
amination, together with a general record, including the schedule of 
credits earned by each pupil in the examination, shall be sent by teach- 
ers to the County Superintendent of Schools within two weeks from th e 
close of the examination. 

10. Failure of any teacher to comply with the requirements of the 
foregoing rules and regulations shall be deemed sufficient cause for the 
Board to declare such teacher guilty of unprofessional conduct. 

11. The Board shall meet at the call of the Secretary to prepare ques- 
tions as provided in Rule 2 of this series . 

12. Diplomas of graduation shall be awarded to pupils that have com- 
pleted the course of study, for Grammar Grades, if they attain 75 per 
cent in examination. 

13. A pupil, upon changing his place of attending school, shall apply 
-for and receive from the teacher of the school he last attended, a certifi- 
cate stating the grade and division to which he belongs. Such certificate 
shall entitle the pupil to enter the same grade and division in any school 
in this county. Blanks for this purpose will be furnished by the Super- 
intendent of Schools. 

14. A pupil having no record in the county schools, who 

applies for admission, shall be examined by the Principal of the school 
where application is made, and the Principal shall grade such pupil 
until the next county examination. 

15. Where circumstances render it impossible to hold the regular 
examination as prescribed in Rule i, an examination shall be held during 
the opening week of the next . succeeding term, or as soon thereafter as 
practicable. Such examination shall be conducted or directed by the 
County Superintendent of Schools, and may be either oral or written, or 
both, at the discretion of the Superintendent. 

By order of County Board of Education. 

And now let us see how the County Superintendents them- 
selves regard this system of promotion. Superintendent 
Robert Furlong, of Marin County, writes : 

Upon the whole, experience has taught me that the " Teachers' Esti- 
mate " plan is not a safe basis for promotion. " Class Record of Stand- 
ings " is still more objectionable. Notwithstanding all that has been 
said against written examinations, I believe that method the best to 



32 

ascertain the power or fitness of pupils for more advanced work. Five 
years' experience with this system in Marin County Schools has estab- 
lished it in favor with teachers, Board of Education and this office. 

Superintendent G. W. Beattie, of San Bernardino County, 
writes: 

All promotions are made on the recommendations of the teachers who 
have had the pupils under their care. After trying the plan for three 
years, of examining pupils for graduation from the grammar schools, on 
questions prepared by the County Board of Education, that method was 
abandoned, and the County Manual issued this year contains the follow- 
ing, adopted by a unanimous vote of the Board. 

" The right to promotion is earned the instant a pupil proves his 
power to do the work of the grade next higher. No one is better able to 
judge this power than the teacher, who daily presents new work for his 
mastery.'' 

Superintendent B. F. Howard, of Sacramento County, 
writes: 

While there are many and valid objections to promotion on examina- 
tions, yet I believe in them for the following reasons: They stimulate^ 
both teacher and pupil to better and more systematic work; they secure 
better organization and classification; they establish a standard for pro- 
motion and graduation, and fix a responsibility not resting alone with 
the teacher. In my opinion the results of promotions and graduations 
based on annual examinations have been very satisfactory and warrant 
continuance. 

Superintendent L. J. Chipman, of Santa Clara County, 
writes: 

We give the teacher the post of honor in the matter of promotions; 
b elieving that he is of necessity better qualified to judge of the pupil's 
intellectual development, capacity for study, physical condition, etc., 
than the County Board, the Principal or any other individual or body of 
individuals. 

Superintendent C. B. Webster, of Solano County, writes: 
If it be possible to arrive at the result sought in any less cumbersome 
manner, and to remove some of the heart-aches which written examina- 
tions have caused the " flesh " to inherit, I would be decidedly an advo- 
cate thereof I believe the teacher is the best judge. Let the examina- 
tions be decreased as much as possible and let the class-standing count 
for much, is what I prefer to the present system. Examinations are a 
curse, but as long as we are cursed with inefficient teachers we needs 
must be " cursed " with them. 



33 



Thb Basis of Promotions. 

County Superintendents, members of County Boards of 
Kducation, Principals of schools and teachers were asked to 
express their opinion on the following question : What should 
be the basis of promotions, written examinations, teachers' 
estimates, or class-standings ? Twenty-six County Superin- 
tendents, nine members of County Boards, and three hundred 
and seventy-nine teachers replied as follows: 





O 


^ 


^1 H 1 


H 




<T r-' 

5-^ 


ember 
Board 
inatio 


03'-* 


a> 


i. 


Basis of Promotion. 


n en 05 

■ o o 


tn^rt 












. P 
. to 








• ts 


• ^^ 


. O 






In favor of written examinations .... 


i8 


7 


Q 


68 


I02 


In favor of teachers' estimates 


8 


2 


Q 


257 


276 


In favor of class standings 


o 


O 


I 


54 


55 


Number reporting 


26 


9 


19 


379 


433 



Of the County Superintendents reporting, 69 per cent be- 
lieve that the written examination should be the basis of pro- 
motion, while 31 per cent express a preference for teachers' 
estimates; 78 per cent of those representing County Boards 
favor written examination, and 22 per cent, teachers' esti- 
mates; 47 per cent of the Principals of schools favor writ- 
ten examinations, and the same per cent teachers' estimates. 
Only 18 per cent of the teachets reporting, favor written ex- 
aminations as a basis of promotion, while 68 per cent believe 
that the teachers' estimates should be the basis. 

The three hundred and seventy-nine teachers reporting 
represented Humboldt, Colusa, Sonoma, Santa Barbara, 
Monterey, San Joaquin, San Francisco, Alameda, Stanislaus, 
lyos Angeles, Santa Cruz, San Diego, Tulare, and Orange 
Counties, and include teachers in mixed, primarj^, grammar, 
and High Schools as follows: 



34 





H 


H 


1-1 


^^ 


K 




W'^ 






wS 







£.0 


02 




"0 


p 




uv 


2, p- 


i-< ti' 


in-tr 






ft) 


V! (D 


, n> 


fD 








H 


^ ►-; cy;i-t 


l-t 






Basis of Promotion. 


^t 


0)" 




w 











ti-o' 


P 


. e 












03 " 


p 


• W 








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In favor of written examinations 


8 


14 


28 


18 


68 


In favor of teachers' estimates 


57 


11^ 


76 


II 


257 


In favor of class standings 


7 22 


19 


6 


54 


Number reporting 


72 


149 


123 


35 


379 



In the grammar grades, where the examinations chiefly 
afiect the teachers, 23 per cent believe that the written exam- 
inations should be the basis of promotion; and 62 per cent 
believe that the estimates of teachers should be the basis. 

James D. Graham, Supervising Principal of the Schools of 
Pasadena, writes: 

Written examinations are necessary, (i.) As a stimulus to both 
teacher and pupil. (2) To maintain a uniform standard in the schools 
of a cit}'^ or county. (3) To correcft the personal equation of error in 
the teachers' estimate. (4) They form something tangible to show 
cause for promotion or not of pupils. 

Caspar W. Hodson, Principal of the Lincoln School, Pasa- 
dena, writes: 

Promotions should always be made, in primary and grammar grades, 
upon the basis of the teacher's estimate of the pupils' ability or power to 
do the work of the next grade. To promote on the basis of either oral 
examinations, written examinations or class recitation marks, alone, 
would be absurd. I do not believe any teacher can do real teaching and 
keep daily recitation marks. 

Who Should Make Promotions ? 

The replies to the question " By whom should promotions 
be made — bj^ teachers, Principals of Schools, or Countj^ Boards 
of Education ?" are as follows: 



35 





O 


gi ^ '::J ! 


^ 


. 


g-o 


!:r. td 2 kfi '-t 




"A 


• 


rt- n 


B 1 Q^ •"• 





P 








n 
i-i 




In Favor of Promotions Being Made 


n.^ 





tnhrl' 


en 






r1-t/5 


i^^-^ 










"' n 


■ «^ 










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. 0) 








n 


n P 










• ►^ 


■ ^-^ 


. 

Ml 






By the teachers 


ID 


1 

3 ID 1291 


314 


By the Principals of schools 


O 


8 59 


67 


By the County Boards of Education .... 


lb 


6 1 I 29 


52 




26 


9 ' 19 '379 


433 



38 per cent of the County Superintendents, 33 per cent of 
the members of County Boards, 53 per cent of the Prin- 
cipals of Schools and 77 per cent of the teachers believe 
that promotions should be made by the teachers; while 
62 per cent of the County Superintendents, 67 per cent of the 
members of County Boards, 5 per cent of the Principals of 
Schools, and 8 per cent of the teachers regard the County 
Boards of Education as the proper promoting power. 

A County Superintendent writes: 

In this county we found that by relying on the teachers the result was 
far from satisfactory, classes being promoted wholesale, because of the 
pres.sure from parents, which, it seemed, the teachers could not with- 
stand. I, therefore, prevailed upon the Board to adopt our present plan. 

A teacher writes: 

Promotions should be made by the teacher. 

{a) It is a very natural conclusion that the one best qualified should 
be the judge, [b) Qualification for promotion is co-ordinate with that 
for teaching. It is the resultant of the year's forces, [c) Ability to do 
should be the basis of promotion, no one knows this better than the 
teacher, {d) When Principal or County Board promotes, the pupil is 
rated upon per cent, a most unjust method, for it does not speak fairly 
of the pupil's ability. We should rise to the higher plane, that a boy 
should be rated according to quality; even woolen goods are so rated. 
Texture and fibre are the points [e) I believe in trusting teachers with 
this work, for they will rise to the importance of their work. I regard 
the present system of some counties, by which promotion is made by 
County Boards, as an unwarranted assumption of authority, and as ty- 
ing the schools down to a routine, unjust and wrong. 



36 

Miss Jean Parker, Principal of the Broadwa}^ Grammar 
School, San Francisco, writes: 

No person or committee should presume to pass upon a child's right 
or fitness to go forward, except those who have had opportunity to note 
his daily struggles and growth in power to overcome difficulties. For 
the past twelve years the promotions in this school have been made 
upon the teachers' judgment as to the best interest of the child. 

Superintendent J. W. Linscott, of Santa Cruz County, 
writes: 

When the millenium comes and we have perfect teachers or rather 
teachers possessed of good sense and judgment, then and not till then 
will we be able to successfully place the question of promotions in 
their hands. 

Mr. James G. Kennedy, Principal of the Franklin Grammar 
School, San Francisco, writes: 

I am in favor of promoting pupils on the recommendation of the 
teacher. The teacher, by means of his daily association, is peculiarly 
qualified to decide the pupil's fitness to enter upon the higher worK, 
This method develops individual child study, the key to all good teach- 
ing. 

I am opp'^osed to written examinations as a means of determining the 
child's fitness for promotion; first, because it destroys individual child 
study; second, it does not test the child's ability to do the higher work; 
third, it is barbarous as well as dangerous to subject children to a severe 
physical and mental strain at the close of a hard year's work. 

How Ofte)n Promotions ark Madk? 

The replies to the inquiry ' ' How often are pupils pro- 
moted ? " from cities are as follows: 

Alameda: Semi-annually. 

Berkeley: Semi-annually. 

Fresno: Annually, and at other times upon judgment of the 
teacher and Superintendent. 

lyOS Angeles: Semi-annually. 

Pasadena: Annually, and whenever ready. 

Riverside: Annually. 

Sacramento: Annually. 

Salinas: Annually. 

Santa Ana: Twice or thrice a year, as case demands. 

Santa Barbara: Annually (which is all wrong). 



37 

San Diego: Annually, or at anj^ time when ready. 

San Francisco: Annually. 

San Jose: Annually, but if arrangements could be made, 
should prefer semi-annually. 

Santa Rosa: Annually, but promotions may be made at any 
time by the Principal when recommended by the teacher. 

Stockton: Annually, but pupils may be promoted at any 
time if prepared to do the work of the next higher grade. 

Twelve of the seventeen towns reporting, make promotions 
annually; four semi-annually. Sixteen County Superintend- 
ents report annual promotions; seven report semi-annual pro- 
motions; one reports that promotions are made every six 
weeks; and two report that promotions are made at any time. 
While 70 per cent of the towns and 80 per cent of the counties 
reporting, make promotions but once a year, the numerous 
protests received indicate that not a few of the teachers of the 
State believe that pupils should be promoted whenever they 
are ready for the work of the next higher grade. Dr. O. P. 
Jenkins, professor of physiology in the Leland Stanford Junior 
University, and at one time connedled with the public schools 
of California, says in this connection: 

The system which includes promotion in the public schools but once 
a year, or even but twice in the year, is a very pernicious one. This 
practice works an injury to the great majority of the pupils. It is ut- 
terly impossible to keep a group of children, under varying conditions 
of mental adlivity, home surroundings, and opportunities, together in 
one set of studies for the year, without keeping back many who could 
easily advance, or crowding forward many who are thus made to do over- 
work. The pupils to whom such a course is adapted, must, from the 
nature of the case, be a small minority of the whole class. The sele<5tion 
of a definite time, once a year, is a perfe<5lly arbitrary one, based on one 
reason, and one alone,— that is, the convenience of the teachers. A 
pupil should be advanced from one class to another at any time, when, 
in the judgment of the teacher and the Principal of the school, that 
pupil could work better in the advanced class. 

I know all the objedlions that would be raised to such a system of 
promotion, but the objedlions are in every case only connedled with the 
easy administration of the school, and whether they are serious or not, 
it is the business of the teachers to meet them by solution of the objec- 
tions themselves, and not by an escape from them by the adoption of an 
arbitrary system of administration to the injury of the pupils, for whom 



3« 

alone the school exists. In the same way, those who are not fitted, on 
account of ability or other reason, to work in the class in which they 
are, should be transferred to the lower class at the time when that lack 
of ability is discovered. 

To hold a pupil for a year, or a good part of a year, in a class in which 
he is working to a disadvantage, for the reason that he could work bet- 
ter in an advanced class, or in a lower class, is one of the most serious 
evils, in my opinion, of our present school system. The seriousness of 
the evil is aggravated from the fa<5t that there is no good reason for its 
existence. 

Advancing from one class to another, or dropping back a class, ought 
to occur without so much ceremony, just as we pass from one subject to 
another, as, for example, from " Addition " to " Subtracftion . " 

The lines between different grades in the same school are wholly arti- 
ficial lines, imaginary one might say, and the maintaining these with so 
much ceremony distorts the meaning of work, and puts a greater strain 
on the school, where little or none should exist. 

Mr. Geo. W. Beattie, Superintendent of the schools of San 
Bernardino County, says: 

The right to promotion is earned the instant a pupil proves his power 
to do the work of the grade next higher. 

Triai, of Written Examinations. 

To the question " Have written examinations been tried 
and found to be a satisfa(5lor5^ basis of promotion in your 
schools?" I received the following replies from City Superin- 
tendents of Schools. 

Alameda, D. J. Sullivan: Written examinations have been 
tried and have not been found satisfactory. 

Fresno, T. L,- Heaton: Written examinations, as the sole 
basis of promotion, I believe is a species of barbarism not to 
be found in the schools of California. 

Los Angeles, W. M. Friesner: No. 

Oakland, J. W. McClymonds: They have been tried and 
found not satisfactory. 

Pasadena, J. D. Graham: Combined with teachers' estimate 
in doubtful cases, they are satisfacftory. 

Pomona, F. A. Molyneaux: We have not yet found any 
way to secure as many good results as by the examination . 

Riverside, Kli F. Brown: Written examinations are all right 
if properly managed. 



39 

Sacramento, Albert Hart: Yes, some years since, and found 
to be unsatisfactory. 

Salinas, W. H. Housh: Only in promotions to and in the 
Higb School. 

Santa Ana, G. W. McGinnis: They have been tried exten- 
sively, but results have not been satisfactory. 

Santa Barbara, Geo. E. Knepper: Written examhiations 
have been thoroughly tried and found wanting as a basis of 
promotion. 

San Francisco, John Swett: OSicial written examinations 
were in vogue for twenty-five years. At present abolished as 
unsatisfactory . 

San Jose, F.P.Russell: Examinations count one-half ; stand- 
ings through the year count for balance. 

Santa Rosa, I. P. Crawford: They have, and are very un- 
satisfadlory. 

Stockton, James A. Barr: Written examinations have 
always been used in our schools until the last two years. 

The San Bernardino County Board of Education, in the 
manual for 1892, says: 

" The County Board of Education will accept the recom- 
mendation of the teachers as a basis for all promotion and 
graduations, hoping thereby to encourage teaching for the 
power that comes from culture. L,et the standard be: ' Not 
what a pupil knows, but what he can do because of what he 
is.'" 

Mr. Chas. H. Keyes, Superintendent of Schools of Riverside, 
in his annual report for 1891, says: " In all grades there has 
been great difficulty in attaining the condition (relieving pupils 
from an intense and undue expenditure of nervous energy, in 
freeing teachers from interminable drudgery with examination 
papers) because of the County Board examination which stood 
at the end of the eighth grade. Teachers would keep in mind 
both the quality and quantity of this examination. The fact 
that at the end of the grammar course, boys and girls must 
stand an examination in from thirteen to sixteen subjedls at 
the hands of a board, who, although highly intelligent, were 



40 

by force of circumstances necessarily unacquainted with the 
teachers and their teaching, did much to cripple the work in 
all grades, and especially in the highest." 

Mr. J. W. Anderson, Superintendent of Schools of San Fran- 
cisco, in his report for 1890, says: " The system of promotion 
and graduation of pupils recommended by the Superintendent 
in 1887, and adopted by the Board of Education, has proved 
to be a success: so much so that there will be no danger of the 
Department again resorting to the effete system of written 
examinations. The most prominent cities of the country now 
make very little account of written examinations. It is to be 
hoped that the time is near when they will in all places be 
relegated to the shades." 

Gkn:erai,izations. 

With these fadls and opinions, what generalizations may be 
drawn ? 

1. That the teachers and County Superintendents are at 
variance as to the educational value of county examinations 
as a basis of promotion, 69 per cent of the County Superin- 
tendents and but 22 per cent of the teachers favoring the 
present system. The arguments presented show that written 
examinations are not accurate tests of power, and that they 
are condemned by the teachers generally because of the use 
made of them. 

2. That the teachers and the Superintendents are at vari- 
ance as to the proper promoting power, 62 per cent of the 
County Superintendents and less than 8 per cent of the teach- 
ers favoring promotions by County Boards through examina- 
tions held by them. The teacher being nearer the child and 
knowing his capabilities must certainly know better than even 
the professional examiner the extent and limitations of the 
child's power. 

3. That the intervals of promotion are unnecessarily long, 
and that strong and weak pupils alike suffer. 




41 



Recommendations. 

1 That a comparative study based on the experience of 
leading educators shows that written examinations, as a 
means of determining the fitness of pupils for promotion from 
grade to grade in the public schools, are believed to be inade- 
quate, and that promotions can most safely and wisely be made 
upon the teachers' estimates. 

2 That the Council hereby disapproves of the practice of 
written examinations as a basis of promotion and recommends 
to all teachers and Superintendents such immediate and ener- 
getic agitation of this question as will result in the abolition 
of the examination system. 



EXAMINATIONS AND PROMOTIONS. 



By J. W. McCivYMONDS, Superintendejnt of Schools, 
Oakland, Cal. 



In answer to a circular letter sent to various cities in the 
United States replies have been received from the following 
cities, to wit: Albany, Boston, Brooklyn, Cincinnati, Denver, 
Hartford, Indianapolis, Kansas City, Milwaukee, Omaha, 
Philadelphia, Scranton, Springfield and St. Paul. From 
these 14 replies the following statistics have been compiled. 

I. BASIS OP PROMOTION. 

(a) Primary Grades: In 4 cities, Hartford and Scranton, 
Albany and Denver, estimate of teacher. 2, Boston and 
Omaha, promote on the estimate of the teacher and written 
examinations. 2, Brooklyn and Indianapolis, on estimate of 
teacher and principal. 4, Cincinnati, Milwaukee, Springfield 
and St. Paul, on class-standing and written examinations, i, 
Kansas City, on class-standing alone and i, Philadelphia, on 
written examinations alone. 

The basis of promotion in the grammar and high school 
grades in each of these cities is the same as the primary, ex- 
cept: For grammar and high school in Cincinnati, written 
examinations only; in Kansas City, class-standing and exam- 
inations; Scranton, teacher's estimate and examinations; and 
written examinations, only, in the Omaha high school. 

II. WRITTEN EXAMINATIONS. 

(a) Questions prepared by whom ? 

In 7 cities, Albany, Brooklyn, Omaha, Philadelphia, Scran- 
ton, Springfield and St. Paul, the questions are prepared by 
the Superintendent; in 3, Cincinnati, Indianapolis and Kan- 
sas City, by Superintendent and Principal ; in i, Boston, by a 
Board of Supervising Principals; and in i, Milwaukee, by 
Superintendent and Principal in the highest grammar grades 
and by teachers in all the lower grades. 



43 

(3) Papers graded by whom ? 

In 8 cities, Albany, Boston, Kansas City, Milwaukee, Omaha, 
Philadelphia, Springfield and St. Paul, the papers are graded 
by the class-teacher; in 2, Brooklyn and Scranton, they are 
graded by the class-teacher subject to revision by the Super- 
intendent; in I, Cincinnati, the pupil is examined by the 
teacher to whose class he aspires to be promoted; in i, Indiana- 
polis, the papers are not graded. 

(c) Examinations, how frequent ? 

In 6 cities, Albany, Boston, Cincinnati, Milwaukee and 
Scranton, there is i examination per year; in 4, Brooklyn, 
Philadelphia, Springfield and St. Paul, there are 2 examina- 
tions yearly; in i, Kansas City, there is an examination every 
12 weeks; and in i, Omaha, there are yearly, 2 examinations 
by the Superintendent, 3 by the Principal, and 5 by the class- 
teacher, making 10 in all. 

III. ESTIMATED NO. OF PUPILS PROMOTED YEARLY. 

Under this head 3 Superintendents reported numerically, 5 
gave no reply at all and the remaining 6 gave correctly the 
percentage of those belonging promoted. 

(a) Primary: 2 cities, Omaha and Philadelphia, promote 
75 per cent; 3, Cincinnati, Denver and Springfield, promote 
90 per cent; and i, Albany, promotes 98 per cent. 

(J>) Grammar: i, Philadelphia, promotes 70 per cent; i, 
Omaha, 80 per cent; i, Denver, 85 per cent; i, Springfield, 88 
per cent; i, Cincinnati, 90 per cent, and i, Albany, 96 per 
cent. 

{c) High: Philadelphia promotes 65 per cent, Cincinnati 
74 per cent, Omaha only 45 per cent the first year but 80 per 
cent the remaining years, Denver and Springfield 85 per cent 
and Albany 95 per cent. 

IV. BRANCHES IN WHICH PUPILS ARE EXAMINED. (WRITTEN.) 

In Boston, Omaha, Philadelphia, Springfield and St. Paul, 
pupils are examined in all subjects taught, in the primary, 
grammar and high schools. In Albany, pupils are examined 
in arithmetic, language, geography and spelling in primary 



44 

and grammar grades and in all subjects taught in the high 
school. In Kansas City and Scranton written examinations 
are not given to primary pupils, but those in grammar and 
high schools are examined in all subjects studied. In Mil- 
waukee pupils in kindergarten and first grade are exempt 
from written examinations, but all other grades are examined in 
all subjects taken. 

V. DO YOU BEIvIEVK THE WRITTEN EXAMINATION IS A SAT- 
ISFACTORY BASIS OF PROMOTING PUPIIvS ? 

In reply to this query I have received 8 negatives; they 
are from Albany, Denver, Hartford, Indianapolis, Milwaukee, 
Philadelphia, Springfield and St. Paul. In Boston the teach- 
er's estimate and written examinations are given equal weight. 
From Brooklyn the reply comes ' ' Yes, for the higher grades. ' ' 
Kansas City can not do without written examinations entirely; 
Omaha answers unqualifiedly "Yes"; and Scranton says 
" Yes, if combined with the judgment of the teacher." 



EXAMINATIONS AND PROMOTIONS. 



REPORT OF Bdw. T. Pibrck, Prin. State; Normai. SchooIv, 

Chico. 



As a member of this committee, I was asked to ascertain 
the views of Normal School Principals on the question before 
us and report thereon at this meeting. I, therefore, addressed 
a copy of the following letter to about sixty of these gentlemen: 

' ' The Council of Education of the State of California is to 
prepare a report on ' Kxaminations and Promotions ' to present 
to the next California Teachers' Association. As a member 
of the committee on the subject, I desire to learn the views of 
the principals of the State Normal Schools of the United 
States on this important question. 

I. What, in your judgment, should be the basis of promo- 
tion (written examination, class standings or teacher's esti- 
mate) in 

{a) Primary Schools (first, second, third and fourth years) ? 
{b) Grammar Schools (fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth years)? 
(c) High Schools (ninth, tenth, eleventh and twelfth 
years) ? 

II. Is the written examination (wholly or in part) the basis 
of promotion in your Normal Schools ? 

What plan is followed in your training school ? 

III. If you do not believe the written examination to be a 
satisfactory means of deterinining fitness for promotion in the 
common schools, please state as fully as possible the plan or 
plans that you would adopt. ' ' 

I received fifty replies, the summary of which shows the fol- 
lowing: 

For promotion of primary schools, 34 believe that the teach- 
er's estimate alone should be used as a basis for promotion; 
none would make class standings the basis; i would employ 
written examinations; i believes in combining written exami- 
nations and class standings; 5 think that class standings and 



46 

teacher's estimate should betaken into consideration, written 
examinations and teacher's estimate; while 4 would make use 
of all three elements, teacher's estimate, class standings, and 
written examinations. 

In grammar schools, 7 are in favor of teacher's estimate 
alone; none believe in employing class standings as the only- 
means; 4 would make use of the written examination; 6 would 
combine written examinations and class standings; 7 teacher's 
estimate and class standings; 15 teacher's estimate and written 
examinations; while 11 would combine all three elements. 

In high schools, 2 are in favor of allowing the teacher's esti- 
mate to be the basis and none are in favor of class standings 
alone; 8 would depend entirely on written examinations; 13 
would combine written examinations and class standings; 6 
teacher's estimate and class standings, and 11 teacher's esti- 
mate and written examinations; while 10 would make use of 
all three methods. 

As to the actual plans pursued by these gentlemen in their 
own normal schools, I find that 2 allow the teachers to esti- 
mate a student's fitness for promotion; i depends entirely on class 
standings; 26 promote entirely on stated written examinations; 
15 combine written examinations and class standings; 3 teach- 
er's estimate and written examinations; while 3 make use ot 
all three methods. 

In primary schools, 68 per cent are in favor of making the 
teacher's estimate the basis of promotion, 2 per cent written 
examination, and 30 per cent a combination of two or more 
ways. 

In grammar schools, 14 per cent are in favor of teacher's 
estimate, 8 per cent written examination, and 78 per cent a 
combination of two or more ways. 

In high schools, 4 per cent favor the teacher's estimate, 16 
written examinations alone, and 80 per cent the combination 
plan. 

In normal schools, 4 per cent favor teacher' s estimate, 2 per 
cent class standings, 52 per cent written examination, and 42 
per cent combinations. 

In primary schools, the weight of opinion is in favor of 
teacher's estimate for promotion. 



47 



In grammar schools, the opinion seems to be in favor of a 
combination of ways into which the teacher's estimate enters 
largely. 

In high schools, the opinion is the same as that for grammar 
schools. 

Written examinations are used in over half of the normal 
schools as the sole basis for promotion; in the others, class 
standings figure largelj^ 

In the three grades of public schools, primar)'-, grammar 
and high, combined, about 30 per cent of the answers favor 
the teacher's estimate, 8 percent written examinations, and 62 
per cent a combination of two or more ways. 

The general weight of opinion, however, as evinced by the 
combined answers, seems to favor the teacher's estimate. I have 
thought it best to copy the Special replies, thus giving a short 
symposium from normal-schoolmen on the question. They are 
as follows: 
Edward Searing, Mankato, Minn. : 

I have yet much faith in the written examination. The current is 
perhaps setting against it, but I do not think it will be swept away. 

George IV. Getter, Girls' Normal School, Philadelphia, Pa.: 

I can see no good reason why an honestly conducted examination can do 
any harm at the end of a school term, and I see many reasons for hesitat- 
ing to favor promotions without an examination, particularly in higher 
grades and schools. I cannot see how any experienced teacher can en- 
dorse such a proposition. Perhaps I am narrow in my views ; I trust 
not, however. I have thought much on the subject and have been a 
teacher over forty years — twenty-eight years in my present position. I 
feel to promote without an examination in this school would destroy 
much of its usefulness, and result in great injury to the pupils, both 
morally and intellectually. The written examination is entirely the basis 
of promotion in this school, and I sincerely trust will always remain so. 
The same plan is adopted in the Training School, except that we exam- 
ine bimonthly during the 5'ear, instead of at the close. 

William J. Milne, State Normal College, Albany, N. Y.: 

If written examinations are conducted in a proper maner they will be 
satisfactory in determining the fitness for promotion. The questions 
should be prepared with care and the answers marked with discretion. 

Albert Salisbiiry, Whitewater, Wis.: 

I believe thoroughly in the value of written examinations, but 
largel}'^ for their educational value. I could not dispense with 
them as a selective agency for promotion, and yet I feel that the 



teacher's judgment of the pupil must have consideration and pretty- 
free play. We lay considerable stress upon the pupil's power of 
e xpression in the classroom. 

/. M. B. Sill, Ypsilanti, Mich.: 

In large classes written examinations seem to be necessary generally, 
and especially in higher grades. The main point is, however, just de- 
termination of ability lo go on. 

H. W. Seerley, Cedar Falls, Iowa : 

I do not believe in the written examination as a sure means of 
determining fitness for promotion, but I do believe that it is 
necessary to examine the work of the common schools about 
twice a year for the purpose of guaranteeing that the work done 
is good on the part of both teachers and pupils. I think the hard- 
ship imposed upon teachers in reading the manuscript is the sole 
objection, hence I would rather be inclined to use it as a means of in- 
struction to secure exactness than to use it as a test to depend upon ab- 
solutely in promoting students. On the other hand, I fear that if the 
teachers' estimates were to take the place entirely of the examination by 
the supervisory officer, it is as much likely to be abused as the other 
system. 

John M. Milne, Genesee, N. Y. : 

I believe that written examinations are a reasonably satisfactory 
means of determining promotions, but not the only satisfactory means. 

In order that you may understand better my views in relation to pro- 
motion by examination and by estimate of the teacher, I will explain the 
plan in operation in this school through the primary, intermediate, nor- 
mal and academic departments. It is as follows : Students are informed 
at the beginning of the term that all who, in the estimation of the 
teacher and by class record, stand 85 per cent and over will be relieved 
from examination (or " selected," as we call it), unless one-third or more 
of the class, who are given an opportunity to vote by secret ballot, de- 
cide that the teacher's judgment is wrong. In each class the names of 
all persons who are selected are written on the board by the teacher and 
copied on a slip of paper by each pupil. Voting is done by striking 
from the list any name which the pupil thinks has been improperly 
selected. 

This plan is carried out in full in the normal and academic depart- 
ments, and as fully as possible in the intermediate and primary. In the 
intermediate and primary the selections are practically made without 
voting by the pupils. In those departments the selections have to pass 
through the hands of the critics, who are expected to visit the classes 
daily. The object of this plan is to secure better class recitations, and it 
results in that usually. 



49 

IV. H. H. Beadle, Madison, S. D.: 

Examinations have value as incentives to pupils and as standards for 
their judgment of progress, as well as information for the teacher. The 
better the teacher, the less use for formal examinations. The examination 
is used by some superintendents and principals to show schools better than 
they are, and thus mislead boards and pupils. They prepare show work ^ 
and in drawing, penmanship and neatness, look well, but in thorough- 
ness in solid studies are imperfect. In other cases examinations are 
made the sole basis of promotion, and the tests are supplied by the 
State or by the head of the school. All the fair work of the term or 
year goes down before the results of this one nervous strain, which may 
take many at a disadvantage. 

In a city's graded schools I would have my fourth grade primary 
teacher one whom I could trust ; the same for the eighth or last grade 
grammar. These grades should be the gates to higher classes. It would 
be better if all grades were so carefully guarded ; these must be. When 
each teacher makes out her own examination questions and is moved 
by a desire to show well, knowing in advance that the papers are to be 
put on exhibition, much time is wasted in practicing. This is true in 
county and State exhibits. Shall it be true in the Columbian exhibit ? 

In all such dishonesty the pupil shares to some extent. What good 
can come of it? Thoroughness ia all studies is ttie bast basis for integ- 
rity of life and character and good citizenship. 



G. S. Albee, Oshkosh, Wis.: 

Written examinations should not prevail until the mere act of writing 
ceases to demand the pupil's attention. In grades below the high school 
both written and oral examinations are desirable, involving catechism 
and discussion of topics ; the latter phase in mode least burdensome to 
pupil, i. e.: some write better than they can talk, others the reverse. In 
all examinations we should aim to diminish mechanical difficulties, that 
the thought tests may be more thoroughly applied. In our training de- 
partment of eight grades, most branches above the fourth grade are 
remitted for one or two quarters in each year, other work taking their 
places. In all such cases pupils are examined in the branches whea laid 
aside, thus avoiding severe stress extending over days at the close of the 
school year. Even when branches are not thus remitted I apprehend 
that examinations should be extended through the last term, scarcely 
more than one in two weeks, with more profit and more justice to pupils 
than is usually the case. 

George L. Farnkam, Peru, Neb.: 

I believe that teachers can do their best work when left free to pursue 
their own course, subject to the general oversight of the principal or 
superintendent. Let him take such means for determining fitness for 
promotion as he deems proper. 



50 

I believe in no scheme that will relieve the teacher trom the exercise 
of his best judgment. Written examinations at irregular intervals may 
keep pupils alert, and if properly conducted relieve them from the 
unnatural strain that stated examinations impose. 

Irwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.: 

Primary: — Teacher's estimate of (i) acquisitions, (2) individual power. 
Grammar Schools : — Class standings, in which teachers' estimate of 
growth and power enter largely with examinations. 

C. C. Rounds, Plymouth, N. H.: 

The written examination is often unsatisfactory as a test, on account, 
first — of the character of the examination; second — from the character 
of the instruction. Given : suitable examinations, good schools, sensi- 
ble teachers, from many years experience, I prefer written examinations, 
class standings and teachers' estimate combined. 

D. Mcliiegor, Prattville, Wis.: 

The written examination is only a device, and like all other devices 
must not be passed for more than its actual value. My thought is to 
make daily work the chief estimate in determining promotions, and this 
must be estimated by the teacher. Daily work should include written 
recitations, each to be considered as of equal importance to an oral reci- 
tation. Then there should be review examinations to be taken into 
account in promoting, daily work to be considered as 2, review work as 
I in making up report. 
James M. Milne, Oneonta, N. Y. : 

We have no stated examinations in the normal department. Teacher's 
estimate is solely the basis of our work. If teacher is in doubt from 
class Stan ding about estimate, a written test may be given in the class, 
covering only the time of the recitation. Such are called class tests. 
The time for such tests is never known to the ptipils, hence no special 
preparation or worry on the part of students. 
G. M. D. Eckels, Shippensburg, Pa. : 

In graded work I believe in taking into account the pupil's capacity 
for the work of the new grade, as well as the fact of his having com- 
pleted satisfactorily the work of the grade he proposes to finish. The 
pupil should therefore be tested partly by presenting to him work not 
found in his text book. 
James M. Green, Trenton, N. J. : 

My plan should include all the means I have of knowing whether or 
not the pupil is prepared to be promoted — my memory, my memoranda 
of class and my examination records. I think that common sense shovild 
be used on this point, as on others. 

Thomas B. Noss, Calijornia, Pa. : 

The better qualified the teacher is for her position, the less need is 
there for formal examinations. 






51 



H. C. Pritchett, Huntsville, Texas : 

I prefer live classroom work, with the free use of the blackboard iu all 
recitations, with frequent written recitations and occasionally a written 
examination, given so the pupil will not be aware of the fact that he is 
being examined, and will not be scared out of his wits. The stated ex- 
amination upon which everything is made to depend appears to me to 
be unfair, leads to cramming and to cheating. I abhor it. 

IV. E. Wilson, Providence, R. I. : 

Secure teachers of character, force and intelligence. Train them to 
teach, not merely to give instruction ; make them responsible for results 
in character and scholarship ; trust and support them, but exercise judi- 
cious supervision. If any of them prove to be incompetent or disloyal 
to the true interests of their pupils or of education, bounce them and 
send to Rhode Island for others. 
E. B. Prettyman, Baltitnore, Md. : 

Teacher's estimate is better aided, I venture to suggest, by the French 
method of having a day's work in school about once a month, but not 
at a fixed time, writteii by each pupil in an individual book — I mean 
one book for each pupil — which is taken by teacher, corrected and kept 
by him till the close of the pupil's attendance on that school, forming a 
true history of his progress throughout his school life. This book aids 
the teacher much in forming estimates for promotion. 
Estelle M. Darrah, Teachers' Traifii?ig School, St. Paul, Minn. : 

I should give the question of promotion less prominence, and educate 
the public to regard the development of the children as of infinitely 
more importance. I should require the principal to know personally 
what work children were doing, and, together with the teacher, to settle 
the question of promotion upon that work. I should give frequent 
opportunities for the children to write upon topics or questions as a test 
of th.Q\x power, not of their fitness for promotion, though their written 
work would partly determine their fitness. 
Ellen Hyde, Framingham, Mass. : 

I do not believe in artificial stimula nor arbitrary tests of any kind for 
children. Marks for class work and marks for written examinations are 
only one form of expression of the teacher's estimate, and the worst 
form, since figures can never tell the exact truth about the pupil's 
mental and moral state, and frequently are the worst possible liars. I 
consider the commonly accepted system of promotions the worst evil ot 
our school system, and hope your council may do something to 
modify it. 
T. B. Stowell, Pottsdam, N. Y. : 

Written theses are preferable to written examinations. Formal exam- 
inations are enervating. Formal examinations encourage ' ' cram. ' ' The- 
sis-writing necessitates association of ideas. Thesis-writing calls for 
apperceptive knowledge. 



52 

Thomas Hunter, Female Normal College, New York City : 
I believe written examinations to be, in a great measure, sources of 
many evils, leading to " cramming." They are at the best a mere lot- 
tery. The refined and delicate often fall below their true standing, while 
the bold and dishonest may attain a rank they little deserve. 

X. Y. Z. Snyder, Greeley, Col. : 

The teacher's judgment is the basis of promotion, made up by the 
pupil's power growing in on the teacher and by tests occasionally. 

The pupil's ability to do good work in an advanced grade should be 
the criterion for promotion to that grade. 

The pupil's ability to do good work grows in on the teacher in reci- 
tation and in reviews, oral and written. I have twenty professors teach- 
ing for me. When I want one to do a certain work, I know just where 
to go or to whom to go that I may get it done. I do not need to hold an 
examination to determine who can do it. I know. It has grown in on 
me. I can't help but know. 

It seems to me that these replies and the summary that I 
have prepared, clearly indicate that ' ' the tide is setting the 
other way. ' ' Dissatisfaction with formal tests is evidently felt 
by the teachers. 

What do the people say ? Let one speak for himself. The 
absurdity of written examinations has been shown very con- 
clusively by a layman, Edward Everett Hale, a careful observ- 
er, a scholar who is in close touch with teachers and the public 
school system. I quote quite largely from an article of his in 
the Boston Commonwealth : 

The visible and certain nuisance of written examinations is an evil 
which is present before a community as civilized as ours all the time, 
except the summer vacation of the schools and colleges. It involves an 
absurdity equal to the absurdities of the decline of chivalry. It waits 
for some Cervantes who shall ridicule it so thoroughly as to drive it 
entirely from the public mind, so that the twentieth century may know 
of it only as most people know of the 'Squires of chivalry by Sancho 
Panza, or of the Knights Errant by Don Quixote. But as the schools of 
the larger towns of Massachusetts open for the autumn, this month is 
perhaps the best month for bringing forward, with however little cour- 
age, a statement of the misery inflicted upon scholars, upon parents and 
upon teachers by this rigmarole. If it were only that one should dis- 
charge an annual duty, and at the bar of any Judge be able to say: " I 
sounded my little trumpet, but the world was making such a noise that 
it did not hear." Jules Simon, now better known as a statesman than 
as a distinguished professor in the University of France, used to say : 



53 



" When I was young we prepared students for life ; now we prepare 
them for examinations." The bitter satire of this statement could be 
repeated by ten thousand teachers in Massachusetts to-day. It must be 
that a good many of the committeemen and supervisors, who have to do 
at least with the outside machinery of the thing, will sympathize with 
the teachers. We shall have half-a-dozen letters before the week is over 
to explain to us that, unless there is a system of mechanical examination 
in the Boston schools, nobody can tell which school is "up to mark" 
and which school is not. Nobody can tell, for instance, whether a half- 
dozen Italian boys eleven years old, who are at work in the Hancock 
school with the difficulties of a new language before them and with 
national peculiarities of early training, can answer on paper with ink 
the same questions which a set of boys of Boston parentage and train- 
ing, who are in the Dwight School, can answer. It is perfectly true that, 
without a fixed examination from printed papers emanating from the 
central office, nobody can tell this in such a way as pleases the statistical 
people. But without any knowledge of one individual of either class in 
the Hancock School, the Dwight School or the Dudley School, lean 
tell, without having seen one of the examination papers. What earthly 
or heavenly reason can there be for driving all these boys in these three 
classes through such a series of questions, merely for the purpose of 
giving the statistical answer in a supposed inquiry, where everybody 
knows the real answer before the inquiry is made, and where the an- 
swer is of no importance when it is attained ? Do we really want the 
Hancock School, for instance, to be the precise counterpart of the 
Dwight School, or the Dwight School to be the precise counterpart of 
the Dudley School ? Do we not really want that the genius of the 
teacher in one shall show itself in his way, and the genius of the teacher 
in another shall show itself in his way ? Are we really trying to turn out 
fifty thousand clothespins of precisely the same pattern in the Boston 
schools, or are we trying to make of each boy and girl the best that can 
be made, and to encourage as we can the particular genius of each sepa- 
rate child'? In some transfer of children from one building to another 
last summer there were examinations of unusual strictness, and the pu- 
pils were drilled for days in advance by what might be called mock ex- 
aminations. A careful and conscientious teacher, worn out by a day 
spent in this drill, lamented to a friend, "Oh, it is so hard. They think 
so much of their writing — for they will be marked on their writing — 
that they forget their spelling ; or else they think so much about their 
spelling that they forget to put in quotation marks. And some of the 
boys are so thoughtless and indifferent. ' ' Upon inquiry, it appeared 
that the average age of these boys who were "indifferent " to quotation 
marks was eight years and a half. Is it possible to conceive of rigma- 
role more absurd than that involved in a system which produces such 
results ? 



54 



It seems to me that there are three things to consider in 
the discussion of this question of examinations for promotion. 
First — the effects of such examination on the pupil; second — 
its effects on the teacher; and third, if not found satisfactor)^, 
what should take its place ? 

When I use the word examination, I mean the formal 
examination at stated intervals. With regard to the pupil, 
we should ask: First, what does he gain by it ? Second, how 
is he harmed by it ? Do examinations benefit the pupil in 
any way ? Yes, they help him to condense his knowledge 
and put it into the fewest possible words; they compel him to 
think quickly, if he is not ' ' scared out of his wits, ' ' as Presi- 
dent Pritchett puts it, by the fear that he will fail to finish 
his work in the allotted time and make at least 80 per cent; 
they put the cool, calm pupil on his mettle and spur up the 
dull one to greater effort. 

Are they harmful to pupils ? Yes, to many. Their harm- 
fulness has been discussed for years at almost every gathering 
of teachers. The three most obvious objections advanced 
are, first, the tendency they have to lead pupils to work for 
marks and not for knowledge; a certain per cent, no matter 
how obtained, means promotion, often leading to dishonesty, 
cheating, copying, anything to reach the required standard; 
second, the almost inevitable ' ' cram ' ' at the close of the 
term, the very suggestiveness of whose name is its best com- 
mentary. One thing that can be said in its favor is that the 
mind is furnished a natural means of ready relief, in its power 
to forget immediately what it has crammed; third, the nervous 
strain which they cause. This is less easily repaired and inva- 
riably falls heaviest on those who least need the test of exami- 
nation. As President Hunter of the New York Normal 
College says, "The refined and delicate often fall far below 
their true standing, while the bold and dishonest may attain 
a rank they little deserve." I know of a case in which one 
of the most earnest and intellectual young ladies of a certain 
school, became so excited over the weekly examination and 
so worried with respect to the results, that she lost all power 
of concentrated mental effort at examination times, and nearly 



55 



always failed. Almost total loss of sleep the night before the 
examination at least caused her to resqrt to nervines to 
strengthen her on the day of the trial. Are there not many 
teachers who could give instances of a like character ? I think 
that all of us who have had much experience in the actual 
work of the school room', and who have given careful thought 
to the question, are ready to afl&rm that there are harmful as 
well as beneficial effects on the pupil in these examinations, 
and have regretted that some scheme could not be devised 
from which these harmful elements could be eliminated. One 
of the greatest objections in my mind, however, is the formal 
character of the work done at such a time, the lack of individ- 
uality that it shows, and its failure to test the pupil as to his 
real abiding knowledge on the subject — in short, its non-edu- 
cational value. Examinations are usually faulty, perhaps 
because the recitation is faulty. Both are often made up of 
disconnected questions and answers, involving no strict logical 
consecution of ideas . The examination questions are often 
mere repetitions of those already propounded in the recitation. 
Correct answers to these questions fail to show logical thought 
on the subject in hand, and tend in no way to strengthen the 
mind of the pupil. They fail to test whether the one who is 
examined can reason from cause to effect, as they rarely touch 
on any phases of the subject other than those already dis- 
cussed in the class. As conducted by most teachers, they 
strengthen memory at the expense of the other faculties. 
They require no real thinking, even were the mind of the 
pupil in a condition to do its best work. It appears then that 
examinations are only partially beneficial to a few, are decid- 
edly harmful in all their effects on some, and are partially 
harmful to all. 

Second, what is gained by the teacher in these examina- 
tions .'' I have yet to find one that is earnest, wide-awake and 
efficient who knows any more about the qnalifications of any 
pupil in his class after a formal exatuiaation than he does be- 
fore. I like the expression of President Stiyder of Greeley, 
Colorado. The knowledge of the power of the pupil has 
" grown in on the teacher. He can't help bat know." There 



56 



is little or no help to an eflficient teacher in a formal examina- 
tion. Is there harm ? L,et any o ne answer who has spent 
hour after hour, till late at night, for a week at a time, look- 
ing over examination papers at the close of a term or a year. 
The faithful teacher has done all that he ought, physically 
and mentally each day of the term; he knows, or should know, 
the strength of each pupil in his class. Why, then, this strain ? 
The only answer that comes to us is the echo "why ?" from 
thousands upon thousands of tired teachers in every State be- 
tween the Atlantic and the Pacific. Teachers are often criti- 
cised because they do not read and study more. Some one 
has remarked that they are the most poorly informed members 
of the community in which they live. The examination is, 
in a great measure, the cause of the narrowing of the mind of 
the teacher to the per cent basis. Of what use is it to him to 
know anything of psychology and how to develop the child's 
mind ? What does he gain in his work by storing his own 
mind with the treasures of history, science and literature, or 
by keeping conversant with all the live issues of the day ? 
He can make no use of this knowledge in the school room, 
for the children will not be examined in it; he has no time to 
promote his own intellectual advancement by reading or pur- 
suing some line of study that is especially attractive to him, 
for he must look over papers during every spare minute of his 
waking hours. All he is allowed to think of ; all he dreams 
about, is memory work, memory work, examination, exami- 
nation, per cent, per cent. 

Some years ago, it was remarked that very few of the teach- 
ers in one of our largest cities, took any interest or part in the 
State associations. When asked why, one of them replied that 
it would do them no good if they did. ' ' What, ' ' said he, ' ' is 
progress to us ? Individuality has lost its meaning. We are 
simply parts of a machine. If we should learn anything new 
at these conventions, it would do neither us nor our pupils 
any good, for we could not put it into practice. ' ' This argu- 
ment might be advanced by the teachers in many small graded 
schools. 

Now it seems to me that there is only one point in favor of 



57 



written examinations and several points in the argument 
against them. It may be well to recapitulate the latter. The}- 
(and the usual system of marking recitations) are wrong in- 
centives to study and often lead to different phases of dishon- 
esty, to the moral detriment of the pupil. The strain on 
delicate and nervous pupils is great, often preventing them 
from doing their best work as well as injuring their health. 
As generally conducted, they involve few educational princi- 
ples and are decidedly weakening mentally. They aid the 
teacher slightly in forming a right estimate of the progress 
and capability of a pupil, but do exhaust his strength and 
leave him little time for the study that will tend towards intel- 
lectual advancement and professional improvement. 

This brings me to the third phase of the question: "What 
should take the place of the examination for promotion ? ' ' We 
ought to be able to devise a plan that shall be beneficial to all 
of the pupils and harmful to none, and that shall be educational 
in its results — a method of teaching and testing that shall not 
so completely exhaust the strength and time of the teacher as 
examinations do, and which, at the same time, shall be for him a 
truer test of the mental advancement and capacity of those 
whom he is trying to teach. 

The replies from the prominent men who have addressed me 
on this subject are too meager and too widely divergent in 
sentiment to give any foundation on which to formulate a 
scheme that may test fitness for promotion. I hope, therefore, 
that I may be excused by this Council for expressing my own 
ideas on the question. During an experience of many years in 
all grades of schools, I have tested all of the ways mentioned 
in my circular as a possible basis for promotion. I have at 
last reached the following conclusions and adopted the follow- 
ing plans: 

The progress and ability of the pupil must be tested. The 
qualified teacher makes the test in his teaching. In every sub- 
ject, he leads his pupils along the three steps by which alone 
they make any knowledge really a part of themselves, viz. : ob- 
servation, generalization and application. The last is the 
test. Can the pupils apply what the teacher has tried to help 



58 



them to see ? If not (and this test is necessary before the 
next topic or subject is studied), then the pupil is not ready 
for advancement or promotion. Here, much, indeed all, I 
might say, depends on the teacher's knowledge of the laws of 
mental development and his skill in questioning. He must be 
able to judge of the action of the child's mind and the mental 
strength involved in the answers and applications instead of 
simply taking Account of the words recited. If he under- 
stands the principle of apperception and its application to all 
the subjects pursued in the school, he must know when pupils 
have grasped new knowledge. 

It is wise to record his judgment of the results of these 
tests and not depend entirely on his memory. The inductive 
study and discussion of a single principle or topic often re- 
quires several days. The record of power to apply in such 
cases, must necessarily be at irregular intervals, at the close of 
"lesson wholes''' as De Garmo calls them. During several re- 
citation periods, the teacher may be leading the pupils up 
through observation and generalization to application and 
there is nothing to record, unless he adopts the " Mind Chart " 
plan of Supt. Frye and takes note of ever}^ phase of mental 
activity . 

lyCt this record in all grades of schools be by letters, repre- 
senting approximate degrees of excellence. Dr. White's plan 
is good, the letters E. G. F. and P. representing "Excellent, 
good, fair and poor. ' ' Emulation to be classed in the highest 
division is enough for most pupils, and what teacher is able to 
measure the work of a mind so accurately as to determine that 
it is 3^ of I per cent stronger than that of another ? 

To preserve the one benefit of the examination, namely, that 
which results from the pupil's effort to condense his knowledge 
and put it into clear, forcible language, I should have him 
write many short papers, mostly topical. The writing of these 
papers should never require more than fifteen or twenty min- 
utes, and they should be classified in divisions as indicated 
above. This classification should take into account the care- 
fulness, the thoughtfulness and the individuality of the writer. 
It should never be known to the pupil when these papers, or 



59 



tests if you choose to term them, are to be required. This 
saves all useless worry on the part of the pupil. He knows 
that his daily work and honest thought count. There is no 
chance to " cram " during the last month of a term; there is 
a premium on steady effort; he will do his ' ' level best ' ' all of 
the time. When he becomes old enough to know that a fail- 
ure to take one step in the necessary process of all learning will 
prevent him from attaining the knowledge sought after, he 
will become an earnest ally of the teacher and the battle will 
be won. To aid pupils to grasp a whole great division of a 
subject, and to put thoughts into logical form, I should require 
them to write occasionally a theme on some subject relating to 
their work. So much for the pupil. 

As for the teacher, this plan relieves him from the strain 
imposed on him at the close of the term in looking over hun- 
dreds of examination papers. If these written tests are thought- 
fully assigned with regard to time, he may have one set of 
short papers from some class almost daily, but it need not take 
him more than twenty minutes to look them over. The sys- 
tem of marking by letters, allows him to exercise his judgment 
in cases in which a paper shows thought, but which could not 
be allowed 80 per cent by the old plan. The one is evidence 
that the pupil is growing, the other simply that he remembers 
an answer. Which deserves the most credit ? No cases will 
arise in which pupils are )4 per cent below the arbitrary pass- 
ing mark, as is often the case in the regular examination. 

I h ave tested this method for promotion in public school 
work. It is now used by most of the teachers in the Chico 
Normal School. It has never failed, in my experience, to pro- 
duce excellent results on the pupil, leading him to do careful, 
conscientious work at all times, and inculcating a knowledge 
not made up of mere text-book answers. 

It seems to me the merits of this method for estimating fit- 
ness for promotion are manifold. It is educational, developing 
all of the powers of the mind instead of memory alone. It in- 
cites pupils to strive daily to do careful earnest work, as 
' ' cramming ' ' or dishonesty will not help them at the close of 
the year. It spurs up the dull ones and does not excite those 
who are nervous. 



6o 



On the part of the teacher, he is allowed to broaden his work 
by making use of any knowledge that will aid him in develop- 
ing the mental powers of his pupils, his main object being to 
incite thought on their part. Such being the case, he can and 
should exercise careful judgment in estimating what a recita- 
tion oral or written is worth. It allows for individuality in 
teaching. It takes account of individuality in work, and will 
never strive to ' ' turn out fifty thousand clothes pins of pre- 
cisely the same pattern. ' ' 

It relieves both teacher and pupils from the strain incident 
to examinations at the close of the term, as the work of the 
last week counts for no more than does the work of any other. 

The teacher must, however, have definite purposes, and de- 
finitely planned work for each subject that is taught, to ac- 
complish satisfactory results by the above method. The same 
kind of work will not always do for diflFerent classes. With 
this variation, there must be no drifting. "The better quali- 
fied the teacher is for his position ' ' as President Noss says, 
"the less need there is for formal examinations." He must 
know the children and be able to understand, appreciate and 
make use of their peculiarities, mental, moral and physical. 
He must be broadly and professionally educated. Quoting 
from Pres. Wilson, of Providence, " We must have teachers of 
character, force and intelligence, those trained to teach, not 
merely to give inshuction,'' who will work "for results in 
character and scholarship. ' ' Finally, as Miss Darrah of the 
Teachers' Training School, St. Paul, says, "Give the ques- 
tion of promotion less prominence, and educate the public to 
regard the development of children of infinitely more import- 
ance. ' ' 



THE RELATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS TO 
HIGHER EDUCATION. 



By Chas. B. Hutton, of Los Ange;i.e;s Normal, Schooi.. 



Great and important questions, whether of state, religion, 
ethics or education, should receive at the hands of those dis- 
cussing them, careful consideration. The rights at issue should 
be weighed with deliberation, and the decision, when made, 
should give evidence of all the interests involved. The rela- 
tion of the secondary to the higher schools is such a question. 
Bach has its rights, its claims and its interests, and each is 
engaged in a work that uplifts mankind. Prejudice has no 
place in the investigation, self-interest should not be a party 
to the issue; breadth and clearness should be the master-spirits 
to direct to a solution. 

This subject, in the past few years, has received and is now 
receiving close attention, and able men are studying it in all 
its phases. It is not an easy one to adjust. There are har- 
monious interests that cement the undertakings of each, while 
there are disturbing elements that do not accord. These can- 
not be settled by any one person, or by any faculty. The 
adjustment must come, if at all, from the generous recognition 
by both sides of legitimate claims. Bducational journals teem 
with articles on the relations between these schools, as to the 
course of study, requirements for admission, shortening the 
college course, &c.; all of which go to show that it is by no 
means a settled question. It has been unfortunate for us in 
this State, that there has been so little discussion. Here and 
there it has been touched upon, but no active consideration 
has been given. It is a matter that will bear investigation. 
Higher education is receiving remarkable attention, and the 
more this is studied, the larger and broader will be the influ- 
ence for good upon the schools concerned, and the deeper will 
be the interest of the people. I shall attempt to present some 
few phases of the relation these schools bear to each other. 



62 



They are independent as to origin and purpose. The col- 
lege or university is the older, having grown out of the needs 
of the higher classes for educational facilities. Private schools 
and tutoring have until recent years been the preparatory de- 
partment, and indeed this prevails in many sections even to 
the present time. The establishment of the University in many 
States has seemed to change somewhat former methods, for by 
being incorporated as a State institution, it has looked to the 
high school, from M^hich it should rightfully receive its chief 
supply of students. But this has not changed the relation that 
higher education bears or should bear to the secondary. 

The high school has grown out of the demands of the great 
middle class for better facilities than those afforded by the 
grammar schools. Increased business opportunities, large 
and successful enterprises, the unexampled development of 
national resources have improved the social condition of this 
class — so numerous in every community. They have secured 
better homes, and enjoy more of the comforts and conven- 
iences of life. These parents, bettered in their material con- 
dition, sought larger opportunities for their children, whom 
they could not send to the college or the university. Says 
one, well fitted to speak on this subject : "The high school 
' ' is the culmination of the American common school system. 
' ' Its main ofiice, though not its only function, is to serve as the 
' ' final stage in the course designed to prepare boys and girls 
' ' for entrance upon the duties of active life. For four rich 
" years this work is carried on, till the pupils are sent forth 
' ' at eighteen or nineteen in the bloom of their youth, to make 
' ' for themselves practical applications of the principles which 
" their teachers have aimed to inculcate." 

These departments of our educational system have also an 
inter-dependence. The college has its positive influence upon 
all the lower schools; it disseminates intelligence; it honors the 
cause of education; it inspires the pupils of the high school 
with an earnest longing for greater privileges. The high 
school, on account of this uplift, has attained a higher stand- 
ard, is more systematic in its work, and responds more readilj^ 
to the thrill of enthusiasm born of the university. Therefore, 



63 



in a large measure, at least in this State, it appears that the 
high school has lost sight of its original design, and has be- 
come merel}^ preparatory. 

The past decade has been remarkable as to the growth of 
the college idea. This onward movement for greater attain- 
ments by the masses has broken some idols, venerated for their 
antiquity. It has cut away the absolute requirement of the 
classics, and has shown that a man may acquire some culture 
by a college education, even though he has never read, in the 
original, the orations of Cicero and Demosthenes. 

It has also settled the question, that the man entering col- 
lege is entirely competent to decide what to study, and that 
his line of work in the higher institution shall be in the direc- 
tion of his special pursuit. These have been active agents, 
not only in modifying the college curriculum, but also in im- 
pressing their influence upon the secondary school. It is un- 
necessarj^ to elaborate the thought or to discuss its bearing, it is 
only named as a factor that has been instrumental in effecting 
changes. 

The exact relation of the high schools to higher education is 
not a settled question. Under the old system, when the 
classics were the standard, the high school held no relation to 
the college; indeed, it had a very precarious and unsettled ex- 
istence. The development of the sciences has been the influ- 
ence, that gave it character and usefulness. 

If you look at the subject from the college, it is merely pre- 
paratory. It has no other function, nor any other occasion for 
existence. If you look up to it from the lower school, it 
is, or, at least, should be, a training school for the middle 
class. In the words of another: " With one hand the high 
" school lifts the pupil's downcast face till his eyes behold the 
" the broad horizon of human knowledge; with the other it 
' ' offers the golden key by which he may unlock every closed 
" door upon life's journey, to bring forth treasures, new and 
" old, for himself and for his communit3^ From its portals a 
" few climb to higher schools, offering larger opportunities 
" and ampler returns; but many more turn at once to their 
" tasks in the world's great workshop, carrying with them in 



64 



" their newly-developed powers and freshly kindled aspira- 
' ' tions — even more surely than in their actual attainments — 
" the seeds of countless blessings to ripen as need shall arise." 
The high school in this State occupies rather an anomalous 
position. It is disowned by the State, being cut off from its 
support by the Constitution. Having no paternal care, it is a 
disinherited child. The university idea seems, however, to 
have constituted itself as guardian, and has trained the school 
entirely in its own interest, so that every pupil, whether will- 
ing or unwilling, shall be prepared for a college course. 

I am aware that I am now upon ground, which is being con- 
tested all along higher educational lines, but there are in this 
subject many premises, conclusions from which are plainly 
evident. 

Kvery few years the requirements for admission to the Uni- 
versity are advanced. The burden falls upon the high school, 
the course of which is already very heavy. Pupils are pressed 
to their full extent, and yet there is no remedy. It has been 
assumed that the high school is preparatory, and under the 
stimulus of being accredited, it is urged and driven. The same 
cause exists east, and the demand is being made to shorten and 
enrich the grammar school course, in order to lighten the 
burden of the high school. Every right of the latter is 
'ignored; every claim it may have is overlooked. This is the 
University idea, If the primary, grammar, high, and univer- 
sity are co-ordinate departments of our educational system; if 
the grammar takes up the work, where the primary ends; if 
the high begins its course where the grammar terminates; why 
should not the Universit}^ open up its line, where the normally 
prepared course of the high school closes ? It is not claimed 
or urged, that the University should have nothing to do in 
shaping the secondary course. On the contrary, I believe it 
subserves the best interests of both so to do, but to be done 
with some appearance of liberality. 

The function of a school is determined by the purposes of its 
pupils. This does not require proof. There are, according to 
the report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, 6,021 
pupils in the high schools in this State. It is not an easy 



65 



matter to arrive at the number of graduates, or the number 
who pass to higher institutions. It can only be done accurately 
by getting the statistics from each school. This I have not 
been able to do, but the general facts are known, and they 
will serve us. It is safe to say, that, on an average, not more 
than 15 per cent of the pupils graduate. There are in the I,os 
Angeles high school, which may be considered a type, both as 
to standing and efficiency, 520 pupils, including the 9th grade; 
in the three regular classes there are 360, of which number 40 
are seniors. The school graduates two classes a year, but 
that does not change the relation of the numbers. Therefore 
15 per cent will cover the whole number of graduates. Eighty- 
five per cent never reach the higher work. They drop out 
here and there, all along the course from various causes: — ill- 
health, disinclination to study, opportunities for business, the 
inexorable demand for sustenance. 

Have the subjects studied been the most beneficial to this 
large number ? Can they take the material given them and 
use it, either as a source of profit or a means of enjoyment ? 
Has the work upon them been of such a character, as tends to 
develop them into well-rounded material for the world's activ- 
ities ? These are important points, the necessity of which 
enters into any and every education. The 85 per cent, or 
5, 100 pupils, are those for whom consideration should be shown. 
They go out into the world as well as the 900, or 15 per cent, 
to battle in its activities, but not nearly so well equipped; 
therefore the interests of the school should be for them. 

Another phase of this subject is the number of graduates, 
who do not enter any higher institution. If we assume that 
25 per cent of the graduates take a higher course, we are giv- 
ing a full allowance. Then the question confronts us, are 
these 75 per cent, or 675 graduates, taking no higher course, 
prepared in the best possible manner for active duties ? No 
one will deny, that, as the course now stands, it is not pre- 
pared for those who do not graduate, but is essentiallj^ for the 
graduates, intending to take a higher course; in other words, 
for 3^ percent of the school, or 225 out of the 6,021. 

If then the university idea for secondary education is correct, 



66 



nothing more can be said; but if it is true that such a course 
is not the best for the 5,775 pupils, who never enter a higher 
institution, then a startling fact is before us — that the high 
school is maintained in the interest of 225 of its pupils, or 3%^ 
per cent of the whole. This brings us face to face with the 
question — does the preparatory work for college fulfill the de- 
sign for which the high school was created ? That education 
is the best which prepares for complete living. That of the 
college is mainly of culture, and so the college man believes 
this kind of education is alone suitable for any one taking the 
secondary. He wishes everything to measure up to that 
standard. There is a large class of educated men who believe 
that for this majority in the high school, there is something 
more than mere college plans. We must face the question as 
it comes to us, and give these 5,775 pupils what will avail 
them in the highest degree — a symmetrical education. I shall 
not stop to enlarge upon this thought. It seems a self-evident 
proposition. 

The courses generally adopted by the high schools of this 
State are three; although one more ambitious has differentiated 
^ one of them into the Commercial-English, the Industrial-Eng- 
lish and the Horticultural-Agricultural-English. This I shall 
not attempt to consider. Education is not a pastime; it is drill, 
development, power-acquiring, broadening. The great ma- 
jority in our colleges and universities are learning what they 
may make useful; they will become engineers, architects, scien- 
tists, professionals, teachers, all having some objective point 
ahead. They are gathering material, they are equipping 
themselves, and the higher institution that will not or cannot 
furnish facilities for such work, will be passed by. In the 
secondary school, the same law should hold, and the 96 per 
cent should be able to gather serviceable material for their de- 
mands. What they get should be the most practical, which 
they can convert into capital. Does the plan as now pursued 
fit in the best manner for life's duties those who do not com- 
plete the course ? 

On entering the high school, the pupil must elect a course. 
He is about 14 or 15 years old, possessed of but little judg- 



67 



ment, and less maturity. The selection is perhaps for a life- 
work; is he competent to decide upon so important a matter? 
In his education to this point, there has not been much of 
mental discipline. ' ' The elementary schools teach little but 
"particular facts and truths; it is the high school that reveals 
"what is universally true. The lower schools appeal to the 
"eye and the ear at the present; the high school reveals to the 
" mind the causes of what is seen and heard." 

Evidently it is a new world about to open to the pupil. Is 
he ready by mental process or development to select ? Are 
his parents, possibly untrained and undisciplined, capable of 
determining as to the best course ? I do not hesitate to affirm 
that proper selection can come only by the outgrowth of sym- 
metrical education. What is the best for the 96 per cent ? 
A science education ? A literary education ? Or one well- 
rounded, symmetrical, developing all his powers, and exercis- 
ing those faculties which they will be required to use when the 
day of activity begins ? 

But these courses are mandatory, so that when the pupil 
enters the junior class, in any one of them, he is there to stay, 
save for some very exceptional reason. If he wishes to drop 
any subject in his regular course, and take another in a differ- 
ent one, of equal rank, he is not allowed to make the change. 
If any one wishes to take certain studies, making the comple- 
ment of work for a pupil, he is refused admission. Is this 
placing the high school upon the plane of the greatest utilitj^ 
to the large majority ? Is it not rather making it a mere de- 
pendence for college preparation ? 

Good citizenship is one of the elements of a complete educa- 
tion. In college work both ethical and political training, as 
well as culture processes, have a large share of attention. 
Such training comes from direct work. In accordance with 
law, civics has been introdnced into the higher grades of the 
grammar school. One would naturally suppose that the work 
in this line would stand in the front in our secondary schools, 
but it is neglected in the junior and middle classes. It is patent 
to all, that in the elementary schools, the study of United 
States History is not much more than the narration of events. 



68 



Herbert Spencer touches the chord when he says: " Suppos- 
" ing even that you had diligently read, not only 'The Fif- 
" teen Decisive Battles of the World,' but accounts of all 
" other battles that history mentions; how much more judi- 
" cious would your vote be at the next election?" The 
development of our national life, the stirring chain of events 
that produce great results, the growth of great political forces 
are omitted or else left to the few. 

One hears a great deal of the perfection of the German 
schools; the French receive their meed of praise, and some 
turn with admiration to those of England. They all are 
intensely national, intensely patriotic. An English boy from 
the day he enters school to his graduation is surrounded by 
the glamour of English names in song, in story and in history. 
Where in the course that measures the work of our secondary 
schools is there any definite instruction upon this subject for 
the 85 per cent ? Is there no patriotic literature in this land 
of ours ? Is there not one name of all those who have con- 
tributed to our national glory, fit to be studied by our youth ? 
Not even an Adams, a Webster, glowing with devotion at 
Bunker Hill, or perhaps even a L,incoln, uttering patriotic 
words on the historic ground of Gettysburg? These men 
may not speak in style so pure, in words so apt, in rhetoric 
so finished, in periods so grand, in elegance so matchless, as 
did a Burke, but the rugged words and inspiring thoughts of 
our own men are doubly precious. Spartan valor came from 
the patriotic models of her own State; Roman prestige grew 
under the glory of her own sons; France, Germany and Eng- 
land lift high their own heroes in their schools. Shall we 
banish from our secondary schools all reference to the men 
whose determined stand built up our national honor ? Shall 
we ignore the burning thoughts of those who plead with such 
devotion for free institutions ? Shall we in our schools neg- 
lect all teaching upon patriotism, and permit the strength of 
devotion to wane in the great strife of business ? Is classical 
English of more moment than patriotic utterances ? Is the 
literature of another people of greater value to us as a nation 
than the historic associations that cluster around the words 
and language of our own statesmen ? 



eg 



Therefore the relation between these schools is not such as 
should exist. It is all one-sided, and the secondary does not, 
and cannot, under present conditions, do what it ought. The 
course is made especially and solely for higher education. A 
prominent head-master, in an article in the Educational Re- 
view, asserts: "It is right that the colleges should consider 
first their own needs; it is not right that the highest inter- 
ests of the schools should be disregarded. Recently the 
subject of shortening the college course by a year was dis- 
cussed with great vigor and earnestness, at least in New 
England. Such a step was certain to react upon the schools 
directly and powerfully, but who, in all that discussion, saw 
so much as an allusion, or, at most, more than allusion from 
any college source, to its effect on the schools ? College 
presidents and professors joined in the debate, but each and 
all utterly ignored the schools. To their minds evidently 
college education is a thing apart, distinct in its nature, 
scope and aims, not a continuation of secondary educa- 
tion." 

A symmetrical education is the needed force, and this is 
secured by a single course. A pupil trained in each of the 
main lines of study will be well-rounded and better fitted for 
any duty. I do not believe, because a boy 15 years of age 
thinks he should take the science, that that is the best for 
him. Mental work gives power and strength, and these come 
largely from grappling with difficulties outside of one's likes 
and preference. An article in a recent number of the Pacific 
Educational Journal from the pen of a scholarly teacher asserts 
that, " No one can deny, that for the purposes of the univer- 
" sity these requirements (the approved course) are excellent, 
" but for the purposes of the high school — the people's col- 
" lege — they are not altogether suitable." 

It is well known that mental processes are not the choice of 
the average boy; he cannot keep his grip, he loses interest 
and is gone. Our schools need not so much mere culture as 
they do what I may call holding power. 

" Bvery child is sure to be interested in something, so that 
" if he can see that other things are related to his favorite 



70 

" ones, life at once broadens before him. The basis of inter- 
" est in study is laid when he finds in the subject-matter of 
' ' instruction that which appeals to his own thinking as valu- 
" able." It is well known that for cultivating the judgment, 
for developing observation, for inciting to keen perception, 
for deducing results, the study of the sciences is especially 
strong, indeed more than the mathematics. This subject 
then is important in every part of the high school work, 
but it does not in two of the courses seem to be so held. We need 
more of the practical and useful; we need to have them trained 
in commercial work, — book-keeping, business methods, prac- 
tical arithmetic, — in such a way that they shall know some- 
thing of them; perhaps also some form of manual training. It 
is not necessary to reduce the school to a business college or a 
manual training school, but rather to teach the subjects with 
some thoroughness. Unfortunately it is not done now, and 
cannot be, while the present system prevails. 

This indicates in a general way the line of work, but it can- 
not be done, until some changes occur. It must be clearly 
defined that the 85 per cent need more to be able to write ac- 
curately and well than to study critically any author on the 
list, that they require specific training for useful activities. 
The course is too burdensome to allow this, and it is evident 
, to all, that what are the practical and useful studies of these 
schools are there more through courtesy than for profitable 
work. The course then needs modifying, lightening and eman- 
cipating. Let the secondary breathe a little of the free air, 
and have a course that will give it some range for local needs. 
Now, for any such purpose it is useless. 

Communities differ as to their requirements, and it is not 
too exacting to say, that the first demand of the school is for 
its local interests. Ninety-six per cent of the pupils will find 
avenues for work in that section. The second and subordinate 
interest is for the higher education. I do not hesitate at all 
in determining this; on account first, of the numbers, and sec- 
ondly that college plans for education are not successful 
methods with the large majority. Examine the communities 
in this State, in which there are high schools. You will find 



71 



interests that pertain alike to all, and then you will find many 
others that are local. These are the first and the best for 
that people. 

The requirements for admission to the University should be 
elective. If a pupil has been under good training, and is 
ambitious for a college education, he will succeed. There are 
certain lines of study that make brain-power, and that is what 
the collegemen are seeking for. There is not one only line 
that gives power, and there is but little justification for the 
pupils of these schools being held down so tightly to certain 
specified requirements. In the light of the great advance in 
these last years, it is no diflBcult matter to show conclusively 
that open lines of work for admission, an elective requirement 
in fundamental principles, is the logical outcome of the new 
methods. 

It is not the purpose of this paper to divorce these schools; 
nor to desire to withdraw the influence of the college idea. It 
is right and proper such influence should exist, but it is not 
right and proper it should dominate the whole life and being 
of the high school. The independence should be maintained, 
but the inter-dependence should not be destroyed. The people 
expect this latter shall exist, but not at the expense of very 
many of the rights of the secondary. 

I am not unmindful that our higher institutions all over the 
land have been largely instrumental in developing secondary 
education; that the influence of men of culture uplifts the 
whole mass; that the college or university ahead of the high 
school strengthens the latter. 

There should be no opposition to higher education. It 
would be an immense advantage to the commonwealth, if 75 
per cent of the pupils of our high schools could reach the 
clusters of rich fruit, that may be gathered in the college. But 
such is not the case, and such a condition can never be real- 
ized. While this is true, it behooves the general welfare to 
handle the subject as it is, to place it in the reach of every boy 
and girl within the walls of a secondary school to secure for 
himself what is most needed, to enable him to fall readily into 
line, because of his education, in the great activities of the 



72 



world's business, to be well-rounded as to his mental powers, 
so that he may have breadth as well as some depth, and to be 
able to gather from the infinite sources around him the pleas- 
ure that comes to the soul in the enjoyment of what is good 
and true. 




LIBRARY OF CONGRES: 



021 523 274 8 



